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r the ague is to go early in the morning to an old willow； tie three knots in one of its branches； say； Good…morrow； Old One； I give thee the cold； good…morrow； Old One； then turn and run away without looking round。 In Sonnenberg； if you would rid yourself of gout you should go to a young fir…tree and tie a knot in one of its twigs； saying； God greet thee； noble fir。 I bring thee my gout。 Here will I tie a knot and bind my gout into it。 In the name； etc。
Another way of transferring gout from a man to a tree is this。 Pare the nails of the sufferer's fingers and clip some hairs from his legs。 Bore a hole in an oak； stuff the nails and hair in the hole； stop up the hole again； and smear it with cow's dung。 If； for three months thereafter； the patient is free of gout； you may be sure the oak has it in his stead。 In Cheshire if you would be rid of warts； you have only to rub them with a piece of bacon； cut a slit in the bark of an ash…tree； and slip the bacon under the bark。 Soon the warts will disappear from your hand； only however to reappear in the shape of rough excrescences or knobs on the bark of the tree。 At Berkhampstead； in Hertfordshire； there used to be certain oak…trees which were long celebrated for the cure of ague。 The transference of the malady to the tree was simple but painful。 A lock of the sufferer's hair was pegged into an oak； then by a sudden wrench he left his hair and his ague behind him in the tree。
Chapter 56。 The Public Expulsion of Evils。
1。 The Omnipresence of Demons
IN THE FOREGOING chapter the primitive principle of the transference of ills to another person； animal； or thing was explained and illustrated。 But similar means have been adopted to free a whole community from diverse evils that afflict it。 Such attempts to dismiss at once the accumulated sorrows of a people are by no means rare or exceptional； on the contrary they have been made in many lands； and from being occasional they tend to become periodic and annual。
It needs some effort on our part to realise the frame of mind which prompts these attempts。 Bred in a philosophy which strips nature of personality and reduces it to the unknown cause of an orderly series of impressions on our senses； we find it hard to put ourselves in the place of the savage； to whom the same impressions appear in the guise of spirits or the handiwork of spirits。 For ages the army of spirits； once so near； has been receding farther and farther from us； banished by the magic wand of science from hearth and home； from ruined cell and ivied tower； from haunted glade and lonely mere； from the riven murky cloud that belches forth the lightning； and from those fairer clouds that pillow the silvery moon or fret with flakes of burning red the golden eve。 The spirits are gone even from their last stronghold in the sky； whose blue arch no longer passes； except with children； for the screen that hides from mortal eyes the glories of the celestial world。 Only in poets' dreams or impassioned flights of oratory is it given to catch a glimpse of the last flutter of the standards of the retreating host； to hear the beat of their invisible wings； the sound of their mocking laughter； or the swell of angel music dying away in the distance。 Far otherwise is it with the savage。 To his imagination the world still teems with those motley beings whom a more sober philosophy has discarded。 Fairies and goblins； ghosts and demons； still hover about him both waking and sleeping。 They dog his footsteps； dazzle his senses； enter into him； harass and deceive and torment him in a thousand freakish and mischievous ways。 The mishaps that befall him； the losses he sustains； the pains he has to endure； he commonly sets down； if not to the magic of his enemies； to the spite or anger or caprice of the spirits。 Their constant presence wearies him； their sleepless malignity exasperates him； he longs with an unspeakable longing to be rid of them altogether； and from time to time； driven to bay； his patience utterly exhausted； he turns fiercely on his persecutors and makes a desperate effort to chase the whole pack of them from the land； to clear the air of their swarming multitudes； that he may breathe more freely and go on his way unmolested； at least for a time。 Thus it comes about that the endeavour of primitive people to make a clean sweep of all their troubles generally takes the form of a grand hunting out and expulsion of devils or ghosts。 They think that if they can only shake off these their accursed tormentors； they will make a fresh start in life； happy and innocent； the tales of Eden and the old poetic golden age will come true again。
2。 The Occasional Expulsion ofEvils
WE can therefore understand why those general clearances of evil； to which from time to time the savage resorts； should commonly take the form of a forcible expulsion of devils。 In these evil spirits primitive man sees the cause of many if not of most of his troubles； and he fancies that if he can only deliver himself from them； things will go better with him。 The public attempts to expel the accumulated ills of a whole community may be divided into two classes； according as the expelled evils are immaterial and invisible or are embodied in a material vehicle or scape…goat。 The former may be called the direct or immediate expulsion of evils； the latter the indirect or mediate expulsion； or the expulsion by scapegoat。 We begin with examples of the former。
In the island of Rook； between New Guinea and New Britain； when any misfortune has happened； all the people run together； scream； curse； howl； and beat the air with sticks to drive away the devil； who is supposed to be the author of the mishap。 From the spot where the mishap took place they drive him step by step to the sea； and on reaching the shore they redouble their shouts and blows in order to expel him from the island。 He generally retires to the sea or to the island of Lottin。 The natives of New Britain ascribe sickness； drought； the failure of crops； and in short all misfortunes； to the influence of wicked spirits。 So at times when many people sicken and die； as at the beginning of the rainy season； all the inhabitants of a district； armed with branches and clubs； go out by moonlight to the fields； where they beat and stamp on the ground with wild howls till morning； believing that this drives away the devils； and for the same purpose they rush through the village with burning torches。 The natives of New Caledonia are said to believe that all evils are caused by a powerful and malignant spirit； hence in order to rid themselves of him they will from time to time dig a great pit； round which the whole tribe gathers。 After cursing the demon； they fill up the pit with earth； and trample on the top with loud shouts。 This they call burying the evil spirit。 Among the Dieri tribe of Central Australia； when a serious illness occurs； the medicine…men expel Cootchie or the devil by beating the ground in and outside of the camp with the stuffed tail of a kangaroo； until they have chased the demon away to some distance from the camp。
When a village has been visited by a series of disasters or a severe epidemic； the inhabitants of Minahassa in Celebes lay the blame upon the devils who are infesting the village and who must be expelled from it。 Accordingly； early one morning all the people； men； women； and children； quit their homes； carrying their household goods with them； and take up their quarters in temporary huts which have been erected outside the village。 Here they spend several days； offering sacrifices and preparing for the final ceremony。 At last the men； some wearing masks； others with their faces blackened； and so on； but all armed with swords； guns； pikes； or brooms； steal cautiously and silently back to the deserted village。 Then； at a signal from the priest； they rush furiously up and down the streets and into and under the houses （which are raised on piles above the ground）； yelling and striking on walls； doors； and windows； to drive away the devils。 Next； the priests and the rest of the people come with the holy fire and march nine times round each house and thrice round the ladder that leads up to it； carrying the fire with them。 Then they take the fire into the kitchen； where it must burn for three days continuously。 The devils are now driven away； and great and general is the joy。
The Alfoors of Halmahera attribute epidemics to the devil who comes from other villages to carry them off。 So； in order to rid the village of the disease； the sorcerer drives away the devil。 From all the villagers he receives a costly garment and places it on four vessels； which he takes to the forest and leaves at the spot where the devil is supposed to be。 Then with mocking words he bids the demon abandon the place。 In the Kei Islands to the south…west of New Guinea； the evil spirits； who are quite distinct from the souls of the dead； form a mighty host。 Almost every tree and every cave is the lodging…place of one of these fiends； who are moreover extremely irascible and apt to fly out on the smallest provocation。 They manifest their displeasure by sending sickness and other calamities。 Hence in times of public misfortune； as when an epidemic is raging； and all other