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of mental pathology； and dissection have now （in 1875） brought back；
justified and completed。＇23＇ Locke had already stated that our ideas
all originate in outward or inward experience。 Condillac shows further
that the actual elements of perception； memory； idea； imagination；
judgment； reasoning； knowledge are sensations； properly so called； or
revived sensations； our loftiest ideas are derived from no other
material； for they can be reduced to signs which are themselves
sensations of a certain kind。 Sensations accordingly form the
substance of human or of animal intelligence； but the former
infinitely surpasses the latter in this； that； through the creation of
signs； it succeeds in isolating； abstracting and noting fragments of
sensations； that is to say； in forming； combining and employing
general conceptions。 … This being granted； we are able to verify all
our ideas； for； through reflection； we can revive and reconstruct the
ideas we had formed without any reflection。 No abstract definitions
exist at the outset； abstraction is ulterior and derivative； foremost
in each science must be placed examples； experiences； evident facts；
from these we derive our general idea。 In the same way we derive from
several general ideas of the same degree another general idea； and so
on successively； step by step； always proceeding according to the
natural order of things； by constant analysis； using expressive signs；
as with mathematicians in passing from calculation by the fingers to
calculation by numerals； and from this to calculation by letters； and
who； calling upon the eyes to aid Reason； depict the inward analogy of
quantities by the outward analogy of symbols。 In this way science
becomes complete by means of a properly organized language。＇24＇ …
Through this reversal of the usual method we summarily dispose of
disputes about words； escape the illusions of human speech； simplify
study； remodel education； enhance discoveries； subject every assertion
to control； and bring all truths within reach of all understandings。
V。 THE ANALYTICAL METHOD。
The analytical method。 … Its principle。 … The conditions requisite
to make it productive。 … These conditions wanting or inadequate in the
18th century。 … The truth and survival of the principle。
Such is the course to be pursued with all the sciences； and
especially with the moral and political sciences。 To consider in turn
each distinct province of human activity； to decompose the leading
notions out of which we form our conceptions； those of religion；
society and government； those of utility； wealth and exchange； those
of justice； right and duty。 To revert to manifest facts； to first
experiences； to the simple circumstances in which the elements of our
ideas are included； to extricate from these the precious lode without
omission or mixture； to recompose our idea with these； to define its
meaning and determine its value； to substitute for the vague and
vulgar notion with which we started out the precise scientific
definition we arrive at； and for the impure metal we received the
refined metal we recovered； constituted the prevalent method taught by
the philosophers under the name of analysis； and which sums up the
whole progress of the century。 … Up to this point； and not farther；
they are right； truth； every truth； is found in observable things； and
only from these can it be derived； there is no other pathway leading
to discovery。…The operation； undoubtedly； is productive only when the
vein is rich； and we possess the means of extracting the ore。 To
obtain a just notion of government； of religion； of right； of wealth；
a man must be a historian beforehand； a jurisconsult and economist；
and have gathered up myriad of facts； and； besides all this； he must
possess a vast erudition； an experienced and professional
perspicacity。 If these conditions are only partially complied with；
the result will only be a half finished product or a doubtful alloy； a
few rough drafts of the sciences； the rudiments of pedagogy as with
Rousseau； of political economy with Quesnay； Smith； and Turgot； of
linguistics with Des Brosses； and of arithmetical morals and criminal
legislation with Bentham。 Finally； if none of these conditions are
complied with； the same efforts will； in the hands of philosophical
amateurs and oratorical charlatans； undoubtedly only produce
mischievous compounds and destructive explosions。 … Nevertheless
good procedure remains good even when ignorant and the impetuous men
make a bad use of it； and if we of to day resume the abortive effort
of the eighteenth century； it should be within the guidelines they set
out。
_____________________________________________________________________
Notes：
＇1＇。 〃Philosophi？ naturalis principia；〃 1687； 〃Optics；〃 1704。
＇2＇ See concerning this development Comte's 〃Philosophie Positive；〃
vol。 I。 … At the beginning of the eighteenth century； mathematical
instruments are carried to such perfection as to warrant the belief
that all physical phenomena may be analyzed； light； electricity；
sound； crystallization； heat； elasticity； cohesion and other effects
of molecular forces。 … See 〃Whewell's History of the Inductive
Sciences。 II。； III。
＇3＇ The travels of La Condamine in Peru and of Maupertuis in
Lapland。
＇4＇ Buffon； 〃Théorie de la terre；〃 1749； 〃Epoques de la Nature；〃
1788。 … 〃Carte géologique de l'Auvergne；〃 by Desmarets； 1766。
＇5＇ See a lecture by M。 Lacaze…Duthier on Lamarck； 〃Revue
Scientifique；〃 III。 276…311。
＇6＇ Buffon； 〃Histoire Naturelle； II。 340： 〃All living beings
contain a vast quantity of living and active molecules。 Vegetal and
animal life seem to be only the result of the actions of all the small
lives peculiar to each of the active molecules whose life is
primitive。〃 Cf。 Diderot； 〃Revue d'Alembert。〃
＇8＇ 〃Philosophie de Newton；〃 1738； and 〃Physique；〃 by Voltaire。 …
Cf。 du Bois…Raymond； 〃Voltaire physician；〃 （Revue des Cours
Scientifique； V。 539）； and Saigey； 〃la Physique de Voltaire；〃 … 〃Had
Voltaire；〃 writes Lord Brougham； 〃continued to devote himself to
experimental physics he would undoubtedly have inscribed his name
among those of the greatest discoverers of his age。〃
＇9＇ See his 〃Langue des Calculs；〃 and his 〃Art de Raisonner。〃
＇10＇ For a popular exposition of these ideas see Voltaire； passim；
and particularly the 〃Micromégas〃 and 〃Les Oreilles du Comte de
Chesterfield。〃
＇11＇ Cf。 Buffon； ibid。。 I。 31： 〃Those who imagine a reply with
final causes do not reflect that they take the effect for the cause。
The relationship which things bear to us having no influence whatever
on their origin； moral convenience can never become a physical
explanation。〃 … Voltaire； 〃Candide〃： 〃When His High Mightiness sends
a vessel to Egypt is he in any respect embarrassed about the comfort
of the mice that happen to be aboard of it？〃
＇12＇ Buffon； ibid。 。 〃Supplement；〃 II。 513； IV。 （〃Epoques de la
Nature〃）； 65； 167。 According to his experiments with the cooling of a
cannon ball he based the following periods： From the glowing fluid
mass of the planet to the fall of rain 35；000 years。 From the
beginning of life to its actual condition 40；000 years。 From its
actual condition to the entire congealing of it and the extinction of
life 93；000 years。 He gives these figures simply as the minima。 We now
know that they are much too limited。
＇13＇ Buffon； Histoire Naturelle； ib。 I。 12： 〃The first truth
derived from this patient investigation of nature is； perhaps； a
humiliating truth for man； that of taking his place in the order of
animals。〃
＇14＇ Voltaire； 〃Philosophie； Du principe d'action：〃 〃All beings；
without exception； are subject to invariable laws。〃
＇15＇ Voltaire 〃Essay sur les M？urs；〃； chap。 CXLVII。； the summary；
〃The intelligent reader readily perceives that he must believe only in
those great events which appear plausible； and view with pity the
fables with which fanaticism； romantic taste and credulity have at all
times filled the world。〃
＇16＇ Note this expression；〃 exegetical methods〃。 （Chambers defines
an exegetist as one who interprets or expounds。） Taine refers to
methods which should allow the Jacobins； socialists； communists； and
other ideologists to； from an irrefutable idea or expression； to
deduct； infer； conclude and draw firm and； to them； irrefutable
conclusions。 （SR。）
＇17＇ 〃Traité de Metaphysique；〃 chap。 I。 〃Having fallen on this
little heap of mud； and with no more idea of man than man has of the
inhabitants of Mars and Jupiter； I set foot on the shore of the ocean
of the country of Caffraria and at once began to search for a man。 I
encounter monkeys； elephants and Negroes； with gleams of imperfect
intelligence； etc〃 … The new method is here clearly apparent。
＇18＇ 〃Introduction à l'Essay sur les M？urs： Des Sauvages