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＇18＇ 〃Introduction à l'Essay sur les M？urs： Des Sauvages。〃 …
Buffon； in 〃Epoques de la nature；〃 the seventh epoch； precedes Darwin
in his ideas on the modifications of the useful species of animals。
＇19＇ Voltaire； 〃Remarques de l'essay sur les M？urs。〃 〃We may speak
of this people in connection with theology but they are not entitled
to a prominent place in history。〃 … 〃Entretien entre A； B； C；〃 the
seventh。
＇20＇ Franklin defined man as a maker of tools。
＇21＇ Condorcet； 〃Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de
l'esprit humain。〃
＇22＇ Montesquieu： 〃Esprit des Lois；〃 preface。 〃I； at first；
examined men； thinking that； in this infinite diversity of laws and
customs； they were not wholly governed by their fancies。 I brought
principles to bear and I found special cases yielding to them as if
naturally； the histories of all nations being simply the result of
these； each special law being connected with another law or depending
on some general law。〃
＇23＇ Pinel； （1791）； Esquirol （1838）； on mental diseases。 …
Prochaska； Legallois （1812） and then Flourens for vivisection。 …
Hartley and James Mill at the end of the eighteenth century follow
Condillac on the same psychological road； all contemporary
psychologists have entered upon it。 （Wundt； Helmholz； Fechner； in
Germany； Bain； Stuart Mill； Herbert Spencer and Carpenter； in
England）。
＇24＇ Condillac； passim； and especially in his last two works the
〃Logique；〃 and the 〃Langue des Calculs。〃
CHAPTER II。 THE CLASSIC SPIRIT； THE SECOND ELEMENT。
This grand and magnificent system of new truths resembles a tower
of which the first story； quickly finished； at once becomes accessible
to the public。 The public ascends the structure and is requested by
its constructors to look about； not at the sky and at surrounding
space； but right before it； towards the ground； so that it may at last
become familiar with the country in which it lives。 Certainly； the
point of view is good； and the advice is well thought…out。 The
conclusion that the public will have an accurate view is not
warranted； for the state of its eyes must be examined； to ascertain
whether it is near or far…sighted； or if the retina naturally； or
through habit； is sensitive to certain colors。 In the same way the
French of the eighteenth century must be considered； the structure of
their inward vision； that is to say； the fixed form of their
intelligence which they are bringing with them； unknowingly and
unwillingly； up upon their new tower。
I。 THROUGH COLORED GLASSES。
Its signs； duration and power。 … Its origin and public supporters。
… Its vocabulary； grammar and style。 … Its method； merits and defects。
This fixed intelligence consists of the classic spirit； which
applied to the scientific acquisitions of the period； produces the
philosophy of the century and the doctrines of the Revolution。 Various
signs denote its presence； and notably its oratorical； regular and
correct style； wholly consisting of ready…made phrases and contiguous
ideas。 It lasts two centuries； from Malherbe and Balzac to Delille and
de Fontanes； and during this long period； no man of intellect； save
two or three； and then only in private memoirs； as in the case of
Saint…Simon； also in familiar letters like those of the marquis and
bailly de Mirabeau； either dares or can withdraw himself from its
empire。 Far from disappearing with the ancient regime it forms the
matrix out of which every discourse and document issues； even the
phrases and vocabulary of the Revolution。 Now； what is more effective
than a ready…made mold； enforced； accepted； in which by virtue of
natural tendency； of tradition and of education； everyone can enclose
their thinking？ This one； accordingly； is a historic force； and of the
highest order； to understand it let us consider how it came into
being。 It appeared together with the regular monarchy and polite
conversation； and it accompanies these； not accidentally； but
naturally and automatically。 For it is product of the new society； of
the new regime and its customs： I mean of an aristocracy left idle due
the encroaching monarchy； of people well born and well educated who；
withdrawn from public activity； fall back on conversation and pass
their leisure sampling the different serious or refined pleasures of
the intellect。＇1＇ Eventually； they have no other role nor interest
than to talk； to listen； to entertain themselves agreeably and with
ease； on all subjects； grave or gay； which may interest men or even
women of society； that's their great affair。 In the seventeenth
century they are called 〃les honnêtes gens〃＇2＇ and from now on a
writer； even the most abstract； addresses himself to them。 〃A
gentleman；〃 says Descartes； 〃need not have read all books nor have
studiously acquired all that is taught in the schools；〃 and he
entitles his last treatise； 〃A search for Truth according to natural
light； which alone； without aid of Religion or Philosophy； determines
the truths a gentleman should possess on all matters forming the
subjects of his thoughts。〃＇3＇ In short； from one end of his philosophy
to the other； the only qualification he demands of his readers is
〃natural good sense〃 added to the common stock of experience acquired
by contact with the world。 … As these make up the audience they are
likewise the judges。 〃One must study the taste of the court；〃 says
Molière；＇4＇ 〃for in no place are verdicts more just 。 。 。 With simple
common sense and intercourse with people of refinement； a habit of
mind is there obtained which； without comparison； forms a more
accurate； judgment of things than the rusty attainments of the
pedants。〃 From this time forth； it may be said that the arbiter of
truth and of taste is not； as before； an erudite Scaliger； but a man
of the world； a La Rochefoucauld； or a Tréville。＇5＇ The pedant and；
after him； the savant； the specialist； is set aside。 〃True honest
people；〃 says Nicole after Pascal； 〃require no sign。 They need not be
divined； they join in the conversation going on as they enter the
room。 They are not styled either poets or surveyors； but they are the
judges of all these。〃＇6＇ In the eighteenth century they constitute the
sovereign authority。 In the great crowd of blockheads sprinkled with
pedants； there is； says Voltaire； 〃a small group apart called good
society； which； rich； educated and polished； forms； you might say；
the flower of humanity； it is for this group that the greatest men
have labored； it is this group which accords social recognition。〃＇7＇
Admiration； favor； importance； belong not to those who are worthy of
it but to those who address themselves to this group。 〃In 1789；〃 said
the Abbé Maury； 〃the French Academy alone enjoyed any esteem in
France； and it really bestowed a standing。 That of the Sciences
signified nothing in public opinion； any more than that of
Inscriptions。 。 。 The languages is considered a science for fools。
D'Alembert was ashamed of belonging to the Academy of Sciences。 Only a
handful of people listen to a mathematician； a chemist； etc。 but the
man of letters； the lecturer； has the world at his feet。〃＇8＇ … Under
such a strong pressure the mind necessarily follows a literary and
verbal route in conformity with the exigencies； the proprieties； the
tastes； and the degree of attention and of instruction of its
public。＇9＇ Hence the classic mold； … formed out of the habit of
speaking； writing and thinking for a drawing room audience。＇10＇
This is immediately evident in its style and language。 Between
Amyot； Rabelais and Montaigne on the one hand； and Chateaubriand；
Victor Hugo and Honoré de Balzac on the other； classic French comes
into being and dies。 From the very first it is described at the
language of 〃honest people。〃 It is fashioned not merely for them； but
by them； and Vaugelas；＇11＇ their secretary； devotes himself for thirty
years to the registry of decisions according to the usages only of
good society。 Hence； throughout； both in vocabulary and in grammar；
the language is refashioned over and over again； according to the cast
of their intellects； which is the prevailing intellect。 …
In the first place the vocabulary is diminished：
* Most of the words specially employed on erudite and technical
subjects； expressions that are too Greek or too Latin； terms peculiar
to the schools； to science； to occupations； to the household； are
excluded from discourse；
* those too closely denoting a particular occupation or profession
are not considered proper in general conversation。
* A vast number of picturesque and expressive words are dropped；
all that are crude； gaulois or naifs； all that are local and
provincial； or personal and made…up； all familiar and proverbial
locutions；＇12＇ many brusque； familiar and frank turns of thought；
every haphazard； telling metaphor； a