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Voltaire； but also the critical explanatory methods of the future。
＇16＇ Meanwhile they skeptically examine the annals of all people；
carelessly cutting away and suppressing； too hastily； extravagantly；
especially where the ancients are concerned； because their historical
expedition is simply a scouting trip； but nevertheless with such an
overall insight that we may still approve almost all the outlines of
their summary chart。 The （newly discovered） primitive Man was not a
superior being； enlightened from above； but a coarse savage； naked and
miserable； slow of growth； sluggish in progress； the most destitute
and most needy of all animals； and； on this account； sociable； endowed
like the bee and the beaver with an instinct for living in groups； and
moreover an imitator like the monkey； but more intelligent； capable of
passing by degrees from the language of gesticulation to that of
articulation； beginning with a monosyllabic idiom which gradually
increases in richness； precision and subtlety。＇17＇ How many centuries
are requisite to attain to this primitive language！ How many centuries
more to the discovery of the most necessary arts； the use of fire； the
fabrication of 〃hatches of silex and jade〃； the melting and refining
of metals； the domestication of animals； the production and
modification of edible plants； the formation of early civilized and
durable communities； the discovery of writing； figures and
astronomical periods。＇18＇ Only after a dawn of vast and infinite
length do we see in Chaldea and in China the commencement of an
accurate chronological history。 There are five or six of these great
independent centers of spontaneous civilization； China； Babylon；
ancient Persia； India； Egypt； Phoenicia； and the two American empires。
On collecting these fragments together； on reading such of their books
as have been preserved； and which travelers bring to us； the five
Kings of the Chinese； the Vedas of the Hindus； the Zoroastrians of the
ancient Persians； we find that all contain religions； moral theories；
philosophies and institutions； as worthy of study as our own。 Three of
these codes； those of India； China and the Muslims； still at the
present time govern countries as vast as our Europe； and nations of
equal importance。 We must not； like Bossuet； 〃overlook the universe in
a universal history；〃 and subordinate humanity to a small population
confined to a desolate region around the Dead Sea。＇19＇ Human history
is a thing of natural growth like the rest； its direction is due to
its own elements； no external force guides it； but the inward forces
that create it； it is not tending to any prescribed end but developing
a result。 And the chief result is the progress of the human mind。
〃Amidst so many ravages and so much destruction； we see a love of
order secretly animating the human species； and forestalling its utter
ruin。 It is one of the springs of nature ever recovering its energy；
it is the source of the formation of the codes of nations； it causes
the law and the ministers of the law to be respected in Tinquin and in
the islands of Formosa as well as in Rome。〃 Man thus possesses； said
Voltaire； a 〃principle of Reason；〃 namely； a 〃an instinct for
engineering〃 suggesting to him useful implements；＇20＇ also an instinct
of right suggesting to him his moral conceptions。 These two instincts
form a part of his makeup； he has them from his birth； 〃as birds have
their feathers； and bears their hair。 Hence he is perfectible through
nature； and merely conforms to nature in improving his mind and in
bettering his condition。 Extend the idea farther along with Turgot and
Condorcet；＇21＇ and； with all its exaggerations； we see arising； before
the end of the century； our modern theory of progress； that which
founds all our aspirations on the boundless advance of the sciences；
on the increase of comforts which their applied discoveries constantly
bring to the human condition； and on the increase of good sense which
their discoveries； popularized； slowly deposit in the human brain。
A second principle has to be established to complete the
foundations of history。 Discovered by Montesquieu it still to…day
serves as a constructive support； and； if we resume the work； as if on
the substructure of the master's edifice； it is simply owing to
accumulated erudition placing at our disposal more substantial and
more abundant materials。 In human society all parts are
interdependent； no modification of one can take place without
effecting proportionate changes in the others。 Institutions； laws and
customs are not mingled together； as in a heap； through chance or
caprice； but connected one with the other through convenience or
necessity； as in a harmony。＇22＇ According as authority is in all； in
several or in one hand； according as the sovereign admits or rejects
laws superior to himself； with intermediary powers below him；
everything changes or tends to differ in meaning and in importance：
* public intelligence；
* education；
* the form of judgments；
* the nature and order of penalties；
* the condition of women；
* military organization
* and the nature and the extent of taxation。
A multitude of subordinate wheels depend on the great central
wheel。 For if the clock runs； it is owing to the harmony of its
various parts； from which it follows that； on this harmony ceasing；
the clock gets out of order。 But； besides the principal spring； there
are others which； acting on or in combination with it； give to each
clock a special character and a peculiar movement。 Such； in the first
place； is climate； that is to say； the degree of heat or cold；
humidity or dryness； with its infinite effects on man's physical and
moral attributes； followed by its influence on political； civil and
domestic servitude or freedom。 Likewise the soil； according to its
fertility； its position and its extent。 Likewise the physical régime；
according as a people is composed of hunters； shepherds or
agriculturists。 Likewise the fecundity of the race； and the consequent
slow or rapid increase of population； and also the excess in number；
now of males and now of females。 And finally； likewise； are national
character and religion。 … All these causes； each added to the other；
or each limited by the other； contribute together to form a total
result； namely society。 Simple or complex； stable or unstable；
barbarous or civilized； this society contains within itself its
explanations of its being。 Strange as a social structure may be； it
can be explained； also its institutions； however contradictory。
Neither prosperity； nor decline； nor despotism； nor freedom； is the
result of a throw of the dice； of luck or an unexpected turn of events
caused by rash men。 They are conditions we must live with。 In any
event； it is useful to understand them； either to improve our
situation or bear it patiently； sometimes to carry out appropriate
reforms； sometimes to renounce impracticable reforms； now to assume
the authority necessary for success； and now the prudence making us
abstain。
IV。 THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY。
The transformation of psychology。 … Condillac。 … The theory of
sensation and of signs。
We now reach the core of moral science； the human being in
general。 The natural history of the mind must be dealt with； and this
must be done as we have done the others； by discarding all prejudice
and adhering to facts； taking analogy for our guide； beginning with
origins and following； step by step； the development by which the
infant； the savage； the uncultivated primitive man； is converted into
the rational and cultivated man。 Let us consider life at the outset；
the animal at the lowest degree on the scale； the human being as soon
as it is born。 The first thing we find is perception； agreeable or
disagreeable； and next a want； propensity or desire； and therefore at
last； by means of a physiological mechanism； voluntary or involuntary
movements； more or less accurate and more or less appropriate and
coordinated。 And this elementary fact is not merely primitive； it is；
again； constant and universal； since we encounter it at each moment of
each life； and in the most complicated as well as in the simplest。 Let
us accordingly ascertain whether it is not the thread with which all
our mental cloth is woven； and whether its spontaneous unfolding； and
the knotting of mesh after mesh； is not finally to produce the entire
network of our thought and passion。 … Condillac （1715…1780）provides
us here with an incomparable clarity and precision with the answers to
all our questions； which； however the revival of theological prejudice
and German metaphysics was to bring into discredit in the beginning of
the nineteenth century； but which fresh observation； the establishment
of mental pathology； and dissection have now （in 1875） brought back；
justified and completed。＇23＇ L