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chemistry。 He experiments with his own hand on the reflection of light
in space； on the increase of weight in calcified metals； on the
renewal of amputated parts of animals； and in the spirit of a true
savant； persistently； with constant repetitions； even to the beheading
of forty snails and slugs； to verify an assertion made by Spallanzani。
… The same curiosity and the same preparation prevails with all
imbued with the same spirit。 In the other camp； among the Cartesians；
about to disappear； Fontenelle is an excellent mathematician； the
competent biographer of all eminent men of science； the official
secretary and true representative of the Academy of Sciences。 In other
places； in the Academy of Bordeaux； Montesquieu reads discourses on
the mechanism of the echo； and on the use of the renal glands； he
dissects frogs； tests the effect of heat and cold on animated tissues；
and publishes observations on plants and insects。 … Rousseau； the
least instructed of all； attends the lectures of the chemist Rouelle；
botanizing and appropriating to himself all the elements of human
knowledge with which to write his 〃Emile。〃 … Diderot taught
mathematics and devoured every science and art even to the technical
processes of all industries。 D'Alembert stands in the first rank of
mathematicians。 Buffon translated Newton's theory of flux； and the
Vegetable Statics of Hales； he is in turn a metallurgist； optician；
geographer； geologist and； last of all； an anatomist。 Condillac； to
explain the use of signs and the relation of ideas； writes abridgments
of arithmetic； algebra； mechanics and astronomy。＇9＇ Maupertuis；
Condorcet and Lalande are mathematicians； physicists and astronomers；
d'Holbach； Lamettrie and Cabanis are chemists； naturalists
physiologists and physicians。 … Prophets of a superior or inferior
kind； masters or pupils； specialists or simple amateurs； all draw
directly or indirectly from the living source that has just burst
forth。 This is their basis when they begin to teach about Man； what he
is； from whence he came； where he is going； what he may become and
what he should be。 A new point of departure leads to new points of
view； so that the idea； which was then entertained of the human being
will become completely transformed。
II。 SCIENCE DETACHED FROM THEOLOGY。
Change of the point of view in the science of man。 … It is detached
from theology and is united with the natural sciences。
Let us suppose a mind thoroughly imbued with these new truths； to
be placed on the orbit of Saturn； and let him observe＇10＇。 Amidst this
vast and overwhelming space and in these boundless solar
archipelagoes； how small is our own sphere； and the earth； what a
grain of sand！ What multitudes of worlds beyond our own； and； if life
exists in them； what combinations are possible other than those of
which we are the result！ What is life； what is organic substance in
the monstrous universe but an indifferent mass； a passing accident；
the corruption of a few epidermic particles？ And if this be life； what
is that humanity which is so small a fragment of it？ … Such is Man
in nature； an atom； and an ephemeral particle； let this not be lost
sight of in our theories concerning his origin； his importance； and
his destiny。
〃A mite that would consider itself as the center of all things
would be grotesque； and therefore it is essential that an insect
almost infinitely small should not show conceit almost infinitely
great。〃＇11＇ …
How slow has been the evolution of the globe itself！ What myriads
of ages between the first cooling of its mass and the beginnings of
life！＇12＇ Of what consequence is the turmoil of our ant…hill compared
to the geological tragedy in which we have born no part； the strife
between fire and water； the thickening of the earth's crust； formation
of the universal sea； the construction and separation of continents！
Previous to our historical record what a long history of vegetable and
animal existence！ What a succession of flora and fauna！ What
generations of marine organisms in forming the strata of sediment！
What generations of plans in forming the deposits of coal！ What
transformations of climate to drive the pachydermata away from the
pole！ … And now comes Man； the latest of all； he is like the
uppermost bud on the top of a tall ancient tree； flourishing there for
a while； but； like the tree； destined to perish after a few seasons；
when the increasing and foretold congelation allowing the tree to live
shall force the tree to die。 He is not alone on the branch； beneath
him； around him； on a level with him； other buds shoot forth； born of
the same sap； but he must not forget； if he would comprehend his own
being； that； along with himself； other lives exist in his vicinity；
graduated up to him and issuing from the same trunk。 If he is unique
he is not isolated； being an animal among other animals；＇13＇ in him
and with them； substance； organization and birth； the formation and
renewal of the functions； senses and appetites； are similar； while his
superior intelligence； like their rudimentary intelligence； has for an
indispensable organ a nervous matter whose structure is the same with
him as with them。 … Thus surrounded； brought forth and borne along
by nature； is it to be supposed that in nature he is an empire within
an empire？ He is there as the part of a whole； by virtue of being a
physical body； a chemical composition； an animated organism； a
sociable animal； among other bodies； other compositions； other social
animals； all analogous to him； and by virtue of these classifications；
he is； like them； subject to laws。 … For； if the first cause is
unknown to us； and we dispute among ourselves to know what it is；
whether innate or external； we affirm with certainty the mode of its
action； and that it operates only according to fixed and general laws。
Every circumstance； whatever it may be； is conditioned； and； its
conditions being given； it never fails to conform to them。 Of two
links forming a chain； the first always draws on the second。 There are
laws：
* for numbers； forms； and motions；
* for the revolution of the planets and the fall of bodies；
* for the diffusion of light and the radiation of heat；
* for the attractions and repulsion of electricity；
* for chemical combinations； and
* for the birth； equilibrium and dissolution of organic bodies。
They exist for the birth； maintenance； and development of human
societies； for the formation； conflict； and direction of ideas；
passions and determinations of human individuals。＇14＇ In all this； Man
is bound up with nature； hence； if we would comprehend him； we must
observe him in her； after her； and like her； with the same
independence； the same precautions； and in the same spirit。 Through
this remark alone the method of the moral sciences is fixed。 In
history； in psychology； in morals； in politics； the thinkers of the
preceding century； Pascal； Bossuet； Descartes； Fenelon； Malebrance；
and La Bruyère； all based their thoughts on dogma； It is plain to
every one qualified to read them that their base is predetermined。
Religion provided them with a complete theory of the moral order of
things； according to this theory； latent or exposed； they described
Man and accommodated their observations to the preconceived model。 The
writers of the eighteenth century rejected this method： they dwell on
Man； on the observable Man； and on his surroundings； in their eyes；
conclusions about the soul； its origin； and its destiny； must come
afterwards and depend wholly； not on that which the Revelation
provided； but on that which observation does and will provide。 The
moral sciences are now divorced from theology and attach themselves；
as if a prolongation of them； to the physical sciences。
III。 THE TRANSFORMATION OF HISTORY。
Voltaire。 … Criticism and conceptions of unity。 … Montesquieu。 … An
outline of social laws。
Through the separation from theology and the attachment to natural
science the humanities become science。 In history； every foundation on
which we now build； is laid。 Compare Bossuet's 〃Discours sur
l'histoire universelle；〃 with Voltaire's 〃Essai sur les m？urs；〃 and we
at once see how new and profound these foundations were。 … The
critics of religious dogma here establish their fundamental principle：
in view of the fact that the laws of nature are universal and
permanent it follows that； in the moral world； as in the physical
world； there can be no exception from them； and that no arbitrary or
foreign force intervenes to disturb the regular scientific procedures；
which will provide a sure means of discerning myth from truth。＇15＇
Biblical exegesis is born out of this maxim； and not alone that of
Voltaire； but also the critical explanatory methods of the future。
＇16＇ Meanwhile they skeptically examine the annals of all peop