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they are heterosexual； bisexual； or homosexual。 It must be difficult for the young person who has a
homosexual orientation to establish a positive identity during adolescence。 There are great
pressures for denial and for conformity to sexual roles that parents and most peers consider
“normal。” Erikson wrote about the aspect of sexual polarization that can be described as “fort
and confidence in the role of male or female。” In early adolescence； young people often feel sexually
inadequate because their bodies are less than perfect； or because they feel inferior to peers who tell
tall tales of sexual adventures and prowess。 Sexual roles are not as clearly delineated as they
formerly were； particularly in the case of the female role； and young females may feel less than
feminine if they have ambitious career aspirations and inadequate as humans if they don’t。
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CHAPTER 11： HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN
Questions of Authority： Being a Leader and a Follower
Resentment of authority is so mon among American adolescents that it is tempting to think of it
as normal。 Differentiating between legitimate authority and arbitrary authority is a task of identity
establishment。 Identity formation includes being able to take the role of leader or follower in the
appropriate circumstances。
Ideological mitment
As the identity is formed； young people must select a basic philosophy； a set of values； and an
orientation toward religion and politics。 Excessive zeal for a cause； dramatic religious conversion；
and allegiance to a cult are some of the extreme symptoms of young people searching for something
to believe in。 The task the adolescent faces is to adopt an ideology that is internally consistent and
patible with the self and the self…image。
It may seem as though identity formation requires that one lay down plans for the remainder of
one’s life and adopt beliefs that will guide one’s behavior for all time。 Of course； this is not the
situation。 Identity formation is bringing together various aspects of the self into a coherent whole
and establishing a psychic “core” that defines the self。 It is probably not a coincidence that
Erikson’s identity crisis begins concurrently with Piaget’s stage of formal operations。 Some of the
cognitive skills of the mature intellect represented by this stage of cognitive development are
instrumental in bringing together the threads of the self。
Myths about Aging
Aging is one of the mysteries of human life that has been a focus of science for a number of years。
Researchers divide aging into two categories： primary aging and secondary aging。 Secondary aging
is change that occurs as a result of disease； stress； poor diet； lack of exercise； or exposure to toxic
substances…any factor that contributes to aging that is actually or potentially preventable。 What is
left is primary aging。 If genes were programmed to effect changes with age； that would be primary
aging。
As research progresses； many of the myths； misconceptions； and stereotypes associated with aging
are being shattered； more of what was thought to be primary aging is； in fact； secondary aging。 For
example； research done in the 1950s and 1960s by highly regarded psychologists showed that IQ
scores reach a peak in the twenties； remain stable until 40； decrease slowly from 40 to 60； and
decline very rapidly after the age of 60。 The idea of deterioration of cognitive functions with age
seemed to be established； but more recent research using longitudinal data has challenged the
earlier studies。 Recent research has shown that significant changes in cognitive functions do not
begin until the mid…70s； and even then intellectual capacities remain intact for people who continue
to exercise them and remain in good health。 In studies with rats； Marian Diamond has shown that
rats who live in an enriched environment continue to show thickening of the cortex when they are
beyond the normal life span of rats。
One of the myths of aging is that people undergo personality changes as they grow older。
Longitudinal data have been collected on a large group of volunteers for 30 years by the
Gerontological Research Center for the National Institute on Aging。 The data show stability of
personality from young adulthood through old age。 The director of the research noted that a person
who is warm； sociable； and outgoing at 20 is likely to be warm； sociable； and outgoing at 80。 He
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
also observed that if you are likely to plain about physical symptoms when you are 80； you
were probably a plainer when you were 20。
Based on research in the 1950s； it was concluded that there is an age…related decrease in cardiac
output； the amount of blood the heart pumps per unit of time。 Thirty years later； using the same
treadmill test； the results were different。 Many of the older participants showed no decrease in
cardiac output； and among those who showed a decrease； the problem was associated with lack of
exercise。 During the 30 years； a great deal was learned about heart disease。 Many of the
participants in the earlier study were not the healthy…hearted specimens they were believed to be。
The conclusions from the recent research are that decrease in cardiac output is probably secondary
aging； and not an inevitable consequence of growing older。
Growing old is something we do not like to think about。 When you consider the alternative；
growing old is not bad。 Many young people do not like to face the fact that habits and lifestyles they
adopt today are likely to have a profound effect at the other end of life。 Some young people say they
don’t want to live that long； but there is never a good day to die； and most young people of today
are likely to grow old； to live to be at least 75 or 80。 When you get there； you may not consider
yourself old； like the 83…years…old woman that refused to shop in a certain store because she
considered the clothes they carried only appropriate for old ladies。
An Aging Society
With the emphasis on “saving social security” that everyone saw in the 2000 presidential election；
we have just begun to see the ing impact of the aging of American society。 As the population
continues to age； and there are relatively fewer young people to physically and economically care
for older people； there will clearly have to be some major changes in many social programs and
how some elements in our society function。 For example； social security will have to be changed to
keep it from being insolvent when the “baby boom” generation reaches its peak retirement
years。 Programs like Medicare will also have to be revamped。 Retirement ages may be moved farther
back； so that the standard retirement age in the not…too…distant future may be 70 instead of 65。 While
today’s elderly are generally healthier than the elderly of previous generations； as they reach their
80s and 90s （and even 100s） many will need extensive health care and nursing home care。 This will
require record numbers of health…care workers to help care for the elderly。 In what other ways might
an aging population impact society？ This can be a thought…provoking discussion for students。
Euthanasia
One of the more controversial issues related to aging and the health problems that often acpany
it is the issue of euthanasia。 Dr。 Jack Kervorkian’s active euthanasia efforts eventually resulted in
his being jailed； but brought a lot of controversy； and publicity to this issue。 You might ask students
how they feel about this issue。 Is active euthanasia ever justified？ If so； under what circumstances？
What moral issues does active euthanasia raise？ What potential abuses could result from legalized
active euthanasia？ What about the “slippery slope” argument that once we begin allowing active
euthanasia in some cases； it bees easier to begin allowing it for less severe cases； and eventually
bees just an easy way of getting rid of “inconvenient” elderly people who are a “nuisance”
because of their ill health and disfort？
While most Americans oppose active euthanasia； because of these potential abuses； the picture is
not as clear when it es to the issue of passive euthanasia； in which no active steps are taken to
shorten the person’s life； but no efforts are made to keep them alive when the person could be kept
alive with outside help。 Some researchers claim that well over 50％ of physicians have occasionally
engaged in passive euthanasia。 How do students feel about this？ How do their feelings about
passive euthanasia differ from their feelings about active euthanasia？
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CHAPTER 11： HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN
BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILES
Alfred Binet （1857–1911）
Born in Nice； France； Alfred Binet was the only child of a physician father and artist mother。
Following the separation of his parents when he was young； Binet lived with his mother； moving to
Paris when he was 15； and entering law school in 1872。 Following receipt of his license to practice
law in 1878； he did not enter into practice and was seemingly not enamored wit