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could be attributable to her severely malnourished state； the emotional and physical abuse suffered
at the hands of her father； and her social isolation； as much as to a potential optimal period for
language acquisition。
By age 24； Genie had received 11 years of special education and rehabilitation to include foster care；
yet her language capability remained short of that expected in a 5…year…old child。 Did Genie miss
her critical period for language acquisition？ We do not know。 Her plight has offered many insights
to developmental psychologists； but many final answers remain elusive。
Craig； G。 J。； & Kermis； M。 D。 （1995）。 Children Today。 Englewood Cliffs； NJ： Prentice…Hall。
Stage Theory： What Is a “Stage Theory？”
As instructors； we are familiar with “stage” theories； as we spend a great deal of time studying
them。 Freud’s stages of psychosexual development； Erikson’s eight stages of man； Kohlberg’s stages
of moral development； and Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are part of our world； but what
is implied to our students when we refer to a given theory as a “stage theory”？
Reber （1985） defines stage theory as “a label applicable to any theory of development that
characterizes growth； be it physical； sensory…motor； cognitive； moral； etc。； as a progression through
a sequence of stages” （p。 724）。 He further states that stage theories tend to be either maturational or
interactional in nature； that they are biologically determined or result from interactions between
biological and experiential factors。
Actually； even if we didn’t use the word “stage” in referring to many of our psychological theories；
we would still be able to easily discern which theories are stage theories and which are not； because
there are four properties that define stage theories。 Without any one of these properties； you do not
have a stage theory。 These properties are：
· A stage theory must predict qualitative differences in behavior； over both time and
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CHAPTER 11： HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN
experience
。 A stage theory must assume invariance of the sequence of stages
。 A stage theory assumes structural cohesiveness of a stage； the behaviors within a stage
must share a mon conceptual base
。 There must be a hierarchical integration of structures from stage to stage； so that later
stages incorporate and expand on the structures from earlier stages
Now； back to our question； what does the term stage theory imply and subsequently mean to our
students？ First； it means that a stage theory is presumed to be universal—which is what “over both
time and experience means。 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development offers an easy example。 Piaget
proposed that children； regardless of nationality； ethnicity； or sociocultural background； all
experience their intellectual development in the same way。 The same sequence of events unfolds；
regardless of where the child lives and under what conditions。 Further； Piaget proposed that the
changes were not only predictable and universal； but that the changes were qualitatively different
as the child moved from one stage to the next。 For example； a 7…year…old child can conserve liquid；
but a 4…year…old cannot。 That is a qualitative difference in the thought process； and it is a function of
the developmental process。
Second； stage theories and stage theorists believe that there can be no latitude in the progression of
the stages of development。 In Eriksonian terms； a child must resolve the trust/mistrust conflict and
learn to trust before he or she can move onto the stage of autonomy versus self…doubt； because
unless the trust/mistrust conflict has been resolved； the child has no possibility of resolving the
autonomy issue。 Stage 1 must precede stages 2； 3； 4； and so on。
Third； cohesiveness of a stage and a mon conceptual base indicate that the stage itself must fit
within the overall theoretical construct； as implied by the underlying conceptual basis of the
theoretical position。 Finally； stage theories represent a series of building blocks； in that one builds
on the other in a hierarchical fashion。 Each stage must progress logically from the one preceding it；
and lead logically to the one following。 If a given theory satisfies these four requirements； we can
properly refer to it as a stage theory。
Identity and the Tasks of Adolescence
Sometimes a concept from academic research or theory catches the attention of the public and
bees integrated into the framework of society’s “general knowledge。” Perhaps this occurs
because the concept is relevant at the time； or because it provides a framework for a generally
recognized problem or issue。 The “identity crisis” proposed by Erik Erikson is such a concept； and
was eagerly adopted by American society in the 1960s。 At that time； the baby…boom cohort was
reaching adolescence。 The Vietnam War loomed as a threat to youth。 Civil rights activists
challenged the thoughtless discrimination of older generations； and the women’s liberation
movement contested traditional ideas of female identity。 Also； by the 1960s； adolescence had
bee established as a life stage created by technological society； giving status to a span of years
between childhood and full adult status during which the young person prepared to live and work
in an increasingly plex society。
Erikson saw adolescence as a pivotal stage of development in which earlier psychosocial conflicts
return in a new form； and in which the foundations are laid for the intimacy； generativity； and
wisdom that are the favorable outes of later stages。 Developmental psychologists sometimes
organize discussion of life stage around the developmental tasks of the stage； those things we must
do to be ready to move on to the next stage。 The elements of the identity crisis can be considered
“tasks of adolescence。”
Acquiring Temporal Perspective
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
One aspect of temporal perspective is to have a clear conception of past and future； and to have the
confidence to plan。 Another aspect of temporal perspective is the ability to regulate one’s own time。
Freshman entering the university environment and who are living away from home for the first time
often have difficulty regulating their own time。 With no parent present to say “go to bed；” they will
solve the world’s problems all night and be unable to get up for class the next morning。 There are
people in middle age who lose jobs； miss airplanes； and alienate friends because of their lack of
ability to regulate their time。
Acquiring Self…Certainty
Self…certainty is equivalent to what is also referred to as self…confidence or self…esteem。 Erikson
thought that efforts to begin to “sever the apron strings” and to bee an autonomous or
independent person begin early in life； about the time we begin to walk。 If the child sees herself
being able to do for herself and acplish little things independently； then she has the basis to
develop confidence in herself。 In adolescence； there are new threats to self…confidence； such as the
prospect of having to be financially independent and to find a desirable partner。 Another aspect of
self…certainty is that it must be acpanied by a self…image that is patible with reality。 Self…
esteem that is unrealistic is a defense； a fantasy that prevents self…fulfillment。
Role Experimentation
During childhood； we usually look to parents or teacher for role models。 In adolescence； young
people are likely to reject earlier models and to go through a series of “trying on” different roles。 The
movies and television provide a smorgasbord of roles and role models。 Role models can be real
people； characters from fiction； historical personages； or creations of our own imagination。 Erikson
thought that role experimentation is a healthy manifestation of the search for identity； but at some
time we have to take the pieces we like from our role experimentation and put them together into a
consistent identity。 The opposite of role experimentation is role fixation。 Sometimes one encounters
a young person who has had an identity laid on him so heavily by parents that attempts at role
experimentation produce too much guilt to be pursued。
Apprenticeship
Theorists are often reluctant to talk about anything as mundane as a getting a job and earning a
living； but Erikson recognized that the prospect of having to be self…supporting is a real concern of
adolescents。 This does not mean that an adolescent has to choose his or her life’s work in junior
high school； but it does mean making general preparation for independence。 The university student
may not have chosen a career or even have decided on a major； but the fact that he or she is in a
college class suggests that the individual does not suffer from what Erikson called “work
paralysis。”
Sexual Polarization
The obvious meaning of this aspect of identity is that adolescents must e to grips with whether
they are heterosexual； bisexual； or homosexual。 It must be difficult for the young person who has a
homosexual orientatio