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and females within a given society
a） Provide basic definitions of masculinity and femininity
b） Much of what is considered masculine or feminine is
culturally determined
c） Gender…role socialization begins at birth； with parental
responses to the infant being based on gender…role stereotypes
VII。 Moral Development
A。 Morality is a system of beliefs； values； and underlying judgments about the rightness or
wrongness of human acts
B。 Kolhberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning
1。 Kohlberg founded his study of moral development on the study of
moral reasoning； the judgments people make about what courses of
action are correct or incorrect in particular situations
2。 Kohlberg’s theory predicated on Piagetian cognitive…development
theory （i。e。； as the child progresses through the stages of cognitive
growth； he/she assigns differing relative weights to the consequences
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CHAPTER 11： HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN
of an act and to the actor’s intentions）
3。 Each of Kohlberg’s levels and stages is characterized by a different
basis for making moral judgments； he was interested in the course of
action involved in making a moral decision； not the decision itself
a） Level 1： Preconventional Morality
（i） Stage 1： Pleasure–pain orientation； reasons for
behaviors is to avoid pain or not get caught
（ii） Stage 2： Cost–benefit orientation； reciprocity； reasons
for behaviors are to obtain rewards
b） Level II： Conventional Morality
（i） Stage 3： Good child orientation； behavior is enacted to
gain acceptance and avoid disapproval
（ii） Stage 4： Law and order orientation； behavior is
enacted to follow the rules； and avoid censure by
authorities
c） Level III： Principled Morality
（i） Stage 5： Social contract orientation； to promote social
welfare
（ii） Stage 6： Ethical principle orientation； to achieve
justice and avoid self…condemnation
（iii） Stage 7： Cosmic orientation； to be true to universal
principles； feeling oneself part of a cosmic direction
that transcends social norms
4。 Four Principles Govern Kohlberg’s Stage Model：
a） An individual can be at only one of the indicated stages at a
given time
b） Everyone goes through the stages in a fixed order
c） Each stage is more prehensive and plex than the
preceding one
d） The same stages occur in every culture
5。 Stages 1 through 3 appear to parallel the course of cognitive
development； with most children reaching stage 3 by age 13； with
much of the controversy with Kohlberg’s theory aimed at stages 4
through 7
6。 Moral Reasoning in Adolescents and Adults
a） Kohlberg’s view was that moral development would continue
in steady progression； beyond level 3； however； not all
individuals attain stages 4 through 7
b） Many adults never reach stage 5； and few go beyond it
c） Stages 4 through 7 are not found in all cultures and seem
more associated with advanced education and increased
verbal ability in Western cultures； features that should not be
prerequisites for moral achievement
C。 Gender and Cultural Perspectives on Moral Reasoning
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
1。 Content of latter stages appears subjective
2。 Understanding each successive latter stage as “more prehensive
and sophisticated than the preceding” is difficult
3。 Latter stages have been criticized because they do not recognize that
adult moral judgments may reflect different but equally moral
principles
a） Gilligan argued Kohlberg’s work was biased in that his
original sample was all male
b） Kohlberg’s research overlooked potential differences between
habitual moral judgments of males and females
c） Gilligan proposed female’s moral development was based on
a standard of caring for others； and progressing to a stage of
self…realization； whereas males base their reasoning on a
standard of justice
4。 Though Gilligan’s contribution is valued； later research suggests she
is incorrect to identify unique styles of moral reasoning for males and
females
a） Researchers dispute whether gender differences in moral
reasoning exist
b） Alleged gender differences may be consequences of the
difference in social situations that arise in the lives of males
and females
c） Studies of gender differences in moral behaviors have found
no consistent differences
5。 Adult moral reasoning may best be characterized as a mix between
considerations of justice and considerations of caring； with the mix
remaining in place over most of the life span
a） Moral judgments are affected by general changes in adult
cognition。
b） A relevant change in late adulthood is the individual’s
shifting the basis for judgments away from the details of
specific situations； and toward the use of general principles
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CHAPTER 11： HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 In several well…publicized cases； judges have returned custody of children to the biological
parents； removing the child from his or her adoptive parents or foster parents。 This would
seem to indicate that there is still a sense of ownership of children in the eyes of the law。
What do such decisions indicate about the status of the rights of the individual child in
such cases？ Whose “best interests” and rights are the courts protecting？
2。 Does the class consider adolescence a concept created by developmental psychologists and
socioeconomic conditions； rather than an actual stage of development？ What overall
societal impact might we see if children today went to work at age 10 or 12； rather than
remaining in school until they reach 17 or 18 years of age？ What was the societal impact of
work rather than education in years past？ What other developmental categories could be
reframed today； or may need to be reframed in the future？
3。 Many elderly individuals develop paranoid beliefs。 Some lay persons as well as
professionals assume this to be a function of the physical deterioration of the brain due to
encroaching senility。 What alternative psychological explanation could explain why some
elderly individuals develop beliefs that others are keeping them ignorant of the actual
condition of their health； plotting against them； etc。？ What myths or fallacies appear
prevalent in your classes？
4。 Psychologists and sociologists have observed that certain homeless children have the
ability to “survive” their homeless experience in better psychological health than do some
others。 Have the class speculate what conditions might predispose a given child to
survive；” to suffer minimal negative impact from the experience of homelessness。 What
makes some children resilient； and not others？
5。 What perceptions does the class have regarding day care？ Is day care seen as an option for
child care； or a necessity？ What about employer…sponsored day care centers。 What
considerations are important to your students regarding this issue？
6。 Discuss with the class the impact an individual’s gender identity might have on his or her
sexual orientation。 Have them consider how gender role behaviors and gender role
stereotypes fit into this discussion。
7。 Discuss rites of passage； nebulous though they may be； in our Western culture。 What
occasions mark our transition from one developmental stage of life to the next？ How does
our culture acmodate and acknowledge these transitions？ What impact do various
rites have on us as individuals？ Do students feel our culture should have more concrete
rites of passage； remain as is； or have less？
8。 What does the class think about “peer pressure”？ Is it a viable phenomenon； or a catchall
invented by parents and behavioral scientists in their attempts to “explain” the sometimes…
annoying behaviors displayed by adolescents？ When during development do individuals
feel it； and when during development does it cease to influence thoughts； feelings； and
behavior？
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
The Effect of Divorce on Children
Divorce is troubling； difficult； and painful for children。 Discuss with your class about the negative
effects a divorce might have on a child between the ages of 2 and 12 who lives with the mother and
visits with the father on alternate weekends。 After mentioning the issues raised below； ask the class
how the concerns may be eliminated。
。 The child may feel that he or she caused the divorce。
。 The child may feel that the father wouldn’t have left if the father really loved him or her。
。 The child may feel insecure。 If one parent leaves； the other may leave； too。 If the father is
unable to keep a weekend visit with the child； the child may feel that he doesn’t want to see
her or him。
。 The child misses the things he or she did with the father； and bees lonely when
thinking about games they played together。
。 The child may have a conflict about loyalty to the parents。
。 The parents may involve the child in their disputes； or use the child as a pawn to
manipulate one another。
。 Financial considerations may make it necessary for the mother to move； and for the child to
change scho