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（iv） Seek and accept intimacy in personal relationships
b） Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Test is widely used for assessing
attachment with infant response patterns falling into three
categories
（i） Securely attached children show some distress when
parent leaves； seek proximity； fort； and contact at
reunion； then gradually return to play
（ii） Insecurely attached…avoidant children seem aloof and
may actively avoid and ignore the parent on return
（iii） Insecurely attached…ambivalent/resistant children bee
quite upset and anxious at parent’s departure； cannot
be forted at reunion； showing both anger and
resistance to the parent but simultaneously
expressing desire for contact
c） Categorizations based on the Strange Situation have proved to
be highly predictive of a child’s subsequent behavior in a
variety of settings
4。 Parenting Styles and Parenting Practices
a） Researchers feel the most beneficial parenting style is at the
intersection of the dimensions of demandingness and
responsiveness
（i） Demandingness refers to parent’s willingness to act as
a socializing agent
（ii） Responsiveness refers to the parent’s recognition of the
child’s individuality
b） Parenting styles
（i） Authoritative parents make appropriate demands on
the child； but are responsive； keeping channels of
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munication open。 This style of parenting is most
likely to produce an effective parent…child bond
（ii） Authoritarian parents apply discipline with little
attention to the child’s autonomy
（iii） Indulgent parents fail to help children learn about the
structure of social rules in which they must live
c） Parents with the same overall style of parenting may place
different priorities on the various socialization goals they
consider important for their children
d） Parenting practices are a response to particular goals； with both
parents’ general attitudes and specific behaviors being
important for charting the life course of the child
e） A 35…year longitudinal study of parenting style revealed that
mothers’ treatment of their 5…year…old children was
significantly associated with social adjustment in the child
more than 30 years later
5。 Contact fort and Social Experience
a） （i） Cupboard theory proposed that infants bee attached to
parents because parents provide them with food； their most
basic physical need
b） （ii） Harlow proposed that infants attach to those who
provide them with contact fort and tested his theory with
infant macaque monkeys
（i） Separated infants from mothers at birth and placed
them in cages with access to one of two artificial
“mothers；” one made of wire and one of terry cloth
（ii） Wire mother provided food source； but babies spent
more time with terry cloth mother
（iii） Babies used terry cloth mother as fort source
when frightened and “base of operations” when
exploring new stimuli
（iv） Harlow also found that the bond of the infant
monkeys to the mother substitute was insufficient for
healthy social development。 Females deprived of
interaction opportunities with other monkeys had
difficulty forming social and sexual relationships in
adulthood
c） Suomi found that placing emotionally vulnerable infant
monkeys in the “foster care” of supportive mothers provided
the infants with coping skills and information essential for
recruiting support from other monkeys； as well as for
maintaining high social status within the group
D。 Social Development in Adolescence
1。 The Experience of Adolescence： The Myth of Adolescent “Storm and
Stress”
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a） “Storm and stress” disputed by cultural anthropologists
Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict as being nonapplicable to
many non…Western cultures
b） Data indicate that the few adolescents who do experience
serious maladjustment are likely to continue to do so as
adults； with a strong link between adolescent conduct
problems and adult criminality
c） Erikson considered the discovery of one’s true identity to be
the essential task of adolescence
2。 Social relationships
a） Peers
（i）Peers now pete with parents in shaping of attitudes
and behaviors
（ii） Social skills and roles are refined with peers
（iii） Peers bee an increasingly important source of
social support； with an increase in anxiety being
associated with peer rejection
（iv） Peer pressure to conform to peer values and behaviors
peaks around ages 12 to 13
b） Autonomy is the transition from parental authority to
reasonable independence on the part of the adolescent
（i） Transition may be difficult for parents
（ii） Parent…child relationships may have more built…in
potential for conflict than do peer relationships
3。 Future Goals
a） Setting goals for the future involves current appraisal of one’s
abilities and interests
b） Selection of future occupation involves tasks central to
identity formation； including awareness of alternatives； and
making and following through on choices
E。 Social Development in Adulthood
1。 Intimacy
a） Intimacy refers to the capacity to make a full mitment to
another person； sexually； emotionally； and morally
b） Intimacy occurs in friendships as well as romantic
relationships； and requires openness； courage； ethical
strength； and usually some promise of one’s personal
preferences
c） Research confirms Erikson’s supposition that social intimacy
is a prerequisite for psychological well…being across the adult
life stages
d） Young adulthood is the time in which many people enter into
marriages or other stable relationships； often deciding to
include children in their lives
（i） Males and females make the transition to parenthood
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CHAPTER 11： HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN
in different ways
（ii） Arrival of children may push parents into more
traditional sex…role behaviors
（iii） For some couples； marital satisfaction erodes due to
conflicts as children pass through their own
adolescent years
（iv） Parents may enjoy their children most when the
children no longer live at home
e） Research indicates that approximately two out of three
couples now married will divorce； but consequences of
remaining in an unsatisfying marriage are more unfortunate
for females than males
（i） Marital dissatisfaction for women often results in
impairment of both physical and mental health
（ii） Men almost always benefit from marriage； even a bad
marriage； while women suffer in bad marriages
（iii） Women are more likely to care for an unhealthy；
elderly husband—and go on to a period of mourning
his death and of financial insecurity
f） In later life； the balance of social interactions shifts somewhat；
from family to friends
（i） The elderly interact with fewer people； but the nature
of the interactions change in order for intimacy needs
to be met
（ii） Selective social interaction theory proposes that as we
age； we bee more selective in choosing social
partners who satisfy our emotional needs
2。 Generativity
a） Generativity refers to mitment beyond oneself to family；
work； society； or future generations
b） Erikson’s last crisis of adulthood is the conflict between ego…
integrity and despair
c） Most adults review their lives with a sense of wholeness and
satisfaction
3。 The Cultural Construction of Late Adulthood： addresses cultural
beliefs and expectations about later life； the stereotypical depictions of
the elderly
a） Overall stereotype is negative
b） Stereotype may serve to change the lifestyle experience of
older adults for the worse
c） Negative expectations of their performance by the elderly may
lead to impaired performance
d） Caretakers may artificially bring about patterns of increased
dependence via the dependency…support script
e） Ageism is prejudice against older people that leads to
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discrimination that limits their opportunities； isolates them；
and fosters negative self…images
VI。 Gender Development
A。 Early human differences perceived by children are entirely social—they sense sex
differences before acquiring anatomical knowledge
B。 Sex and Gender
1。 Sex differences are biologically based characteristics that distinguish
males from females
a） Include different reproductive functions and differences in
anatomy and hormones
b） Differences are universal； biologically determined； and
unchanged by social influence
c） Over time； sex differences have led to development of
traditional social roles for males and females
2。 Gender is a psychological phenomenon； referring to learned； sex…
related behaviors and attitudes
3。 Gender identity is the individual’s sense of maleness or femaleness；
and includes awareness and acceptance of one’s own sex
a） Develops at an early age
b） Is important to child’s psychological well…being
C。 The Acquisition of Gender Roles
1。 Gender roles are patterns of behavior regarded as appropriate for males
and females within a given society
a） Provi