按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
Brazil； dreams represent visions of the future
F。 Physiological Theories of Dream Content
1。 Represent the greatest challenge to the Freudian Theory of Dreams
2。 The Activation–Synthesis Model of Dreams suggests that dreams are
the brain’s attempt to make sense of essentially random neural firings
that occur during sleep。 In an inexorable quest for meaning； the brain
weaves random neural activity into a strange but prehensible
narrative based on memories； beliefs； values； goals； and expectations。
G。 Nightmares
1。 Nightmares are dreams that make the dreamer feel helpless or out of
control
90
CHAPTER 6： MIND； CONSCIOUSNESS； AND ALTERED STATES
2。 Nightmares are often triggered by stress； especially fear of harm and
desertion； and usually only occur a few times each year
3。 Traumatic events may make individuals more likely to have
nightmares that force them to relive some aspect of the traumatic event
IV。 Alerted States of Consciousness
A。 Lucid Dreaming
1。 Lucid dreaming involves conscious awareness while an individual is
dreaming； that they are dreaming
2。 Research suggests that the ability to lucid dream can be taught
3。 Some researchers； such as LaBerge； argue that lucid dreaming
enhances self…esteem and generates positive experiences by giving
individuals control over the often uncontrollable events of dreams and
nightmares
4。 Others argue that lucid dreaming interferes with and distorts the
natural process of dreaming
B。 Hypnosis
1。 Hypnosis is an alternative state of awareness characterized by the
special ability some people have of responding to suggestion with
changes in perception； memory； motivation； and sense of self…control
a） Some researchers believe that hypnotized individuals enter a
trance； although research suggests that this is not the case
b） Some believe that hypnosis is a kind of placebo response；
although some research suggests an added benefit beyond
that derived from a placebo
2。 Hypnotic Induction and Hypnotizability
a） A hypnotic induction is a preliminary set of activities that
minimizes external distractions and encourages the
participant to enter a hypnotic state
b） Hypnotizability refers to the degree to which an individual is
responsive to standardized suggestions to experience
hypnotic reactions
c） Hypnotizability varies widely from person to person； is
relatively stable over time； and may have some genetic
determinants； although it is not correlated with any
personality trait
3。 Effects of Hypnosis
a） One undisputed value of hypnosis is pain reduction （hypnotic
analgesia）。 Hypnotic analgesia has proved especially
valuable to surgery patients that are allergic to anesthesia； to
mothers in natural childbirth； and to cancer patients learning
to endure chronic pain associated with their disease。
b） Self…hypnosis is the best approach to controlling pain because
91
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
individuals can essentially self…medicate whenever pain
arises
c） Research on hypnotic pain reduction suggests that hypnosis
segregates consciousness into two levels。 One level is a full；
but hypnotic； consciousness。 The second level is a Hidden
Observer； a concealed nonconscious awareness that monitors
the hypnotized consciousness。
d） People cannot be made to do anything that they do not wish
to do under hypnosis
C。 Meditation
1。 Meditation is a form of consciousness change designed to enhance self…
knowledge and well…being by reducing self…awareness
a） Critics argue that there is little difference between a normal
resting state with the eyes closed and the state entered
through meditation
b） Advocates argue that meditation reduces stress； can improve
IQ； and can even lead to enlightenment
D。 Hallucinations
1。 Hallucinations are false perceptions that occur in the absence of
objective stimulation and can be caused by the following：
a） Heightened arousal
b） States of intense need
c） Inability to suppress threatening thoughts
d） Abnormal brain functioning caused by fevers； seizures； and
migraine headaches
e） Psychoactive drugs； such as LSD and peyote； can also
produce hallucinations by acting directly on the brain
2。 In some cultural and religious settings； hallucinations play an
important mystical or spiritual role
E。 Religious Ecstasy
1。 Religious ecstasy is a unique psychological state characterized by a
sense of oneness and connectedness often brought on by meditation；
prayer； fasting； and spiritual munication
2。 During religious ecstasy； some individuals can do remarkable things
that they ordinarily may not be able to do； such as handling deadly
snakes； drinking poison； and handling fire
F。 Mind…Altering Drugs
1。 Although mind…altering drugs have been used for centuries during
religious ceremonies； today they are associated more often with
92
CHAPTER 6： MIND； CONSCIOUSNESS； AND ALTERED STATES
recreational usage
2。 Dependence and Addition
a） Psychoactive drugs are chemicals that affect mental processes；
such as perception； memory； mood； and behavior by
temporarily changing conscious awareness
b） Tolerance may be developed to psychoactive drugs in which
more and more of the drug is needed to produce the same
change in consciousness
c） Physiological dependence is a process in which the body
bees accustomed to the presence of a drug and begins to
depend on its presence to function properly
3。 Varieties of Psychoactive Drugs
a） Hallucinogenic or psychedelic drugs； including LSD； mescaline；
psilocybin； and PCP； can produce profound alterations of both
perception and inner awareness。 They often lead to a loss of
boundary between self and non…self and to confusion。
b） Cannabis； including both marijuana and hashish； can create
mild； pleasurable highs； distortions of space and time；
euphoria； and； occasionally； hallucination。 Possible negative
effects include fear； anxiety； paranoia； confusion； and
retardation of motor function。
c） Opiates； such as heroin and morphine； suppress physical
sensation and stimulation and produce a rush of euphoria。
Because of this rush； any use is likely to lead to serious
addiction。
d） Depressants； such as barbiturates and alcohol； tend to depress
the mental and physical activity of the body by inhibiting the
transmission of nerve impulses in the central nervous system
（i） Barbiturates； such as Valium and Xanax； are
particularly dangerous； accounting for half of drug
overdoses
（ii） Although often socially accepted； alcohol is a major
health and social problem。 Alcohol use can lead to
alcoholism； which can disrupt social and
professional relations； and to serious health
problems。
e） Stimulants； such as amphetamines； cocaine； and crack （a purified
form of cocaine）； induce a sense of euphoria； self…confidence；
and hyperalertness。 Possible negative effects include
paranoid delusions； cycles of euphoric highs and painful
lows； and social isolation。
93
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
（i） Caffeine and nicotine are often unrecognized
stimulants that act on the brain much like other
stimulants。 Nicotine is a dangerous drug that has a
greater impact on health than that of all other
psychoactive drugs bined。
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 The class should now be familiar with dualism and monism； through both the text and
lectures。 Ask them which of these they think best describes the relationship between the
brain and the mind。 Why？ Can anyone think of personal experiences or observations to
support their beliefs？ What about empirical data that might support a given hypothesis？
2。 Zimbardo and Gerrig propose that sleep may have evolved because it gave animals an
opportunity to conserve energy at those times when they did not need to be searching for
food or a mate。 Given that we as humans no longer engage in these activities under the
same constraints as animals； ask the class if they think it possible that we may eventually
evolve out of the need for sleep。
3。 According to Zimbardo and Gerrig； there appears to be a developmental timetable for
dreams that parallels our cognitive developmental pathway； with children being the
example given。 If this premise is valid； what sort of dreams might we expect to see at the
opposite end of the spectrum； during old age？
4。 Ask your students if they have ever had a lucid dream。 Have students share their lucid
experiences。 Students find this subject fascinating； and the topic often leads to lively
discussion concerning the nature of consciousness and the nature of reality。 How would
students use the extra time of consciousness while they are lucid in their dreams？ Would
they use it differently than they would normal consciousness？ Why or why not？
5。 Most sleep researchers argue that people need an average of 8 hours of sleep per day to be
fully rested and alert。 First； you might ask students why they think this is； as most people
today do not physically exert themselves enough to require 8 hours of sleep to physically
recharge themselves。 Second； you might ask students how much sleep th