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B。 Awareness and Consciousness
C。 Consciousness is an ambiguous term that can refer to a general state of mind or to its
specific contents
1。 The contents of consciousness refers to the information at the
intersection of these two types of consciousness
D。 Consciousness has long been a topic of psychological inquiry。 In the late 1800s； Wundt and
Titchener used introspection to explore the contents of the conscious mind and James made
observations of his own “stream of consciousness。”
E。 Ordinary waking consciousness includes perceptions； thoughts； feelings； images； and
desires at a given moment； but consciousness can be formally defined as consisting of three
levels：
1。 Basic level consciousness is an awareness of the inner and outer world–
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CHAPTER 6： MIND； CONSCIOUSNESS； AND ALTERED STATES
awareness that one is perceiving and reacting to perceptual
information
2。 Second level consciousness is the reflection on that of which one is aware
and includes the manipulation of symbolic knowledge free from the
constraints of real objects and present events
3。 Top level consciousness is self…awareness–awareness that one is
conscious and capable of reflection
F。 Accessibility to Consciousness
1。 Non…conscious processes are bodily activities that rarely impinge on
consciousness； such as digestion； regulation of blood pressure； and
breathing
2。 Preconscious memories are memories that bee accessible to
consciousness only after something has called attention to them
3。 Unattended information refers to environmental stimuli that are not the
focus of attention； but that may be processed unconsciously。 If these
stimuli bee relevant； such as when you hear your name at a
cocktail party； it may bee the subject of consciousness。
4。 The Unconscious； most fully elaborated by Freud； refers to mental
processes that are not and cannot be conscious。 Freud believed that
the unconscious was filled with forbidden； traumatic thoughts； while
contemporary researchers examine the more benign aspects of the
unconscious。
G。 Studying the Contents of Consciousness
1。 Two primary methods are used to study consciousness：
a） Think…aloud protocols ask individual to report their thoughts
aloud as they perform an experimental task
b） Experience…sampling methods ask individuals to report their
thoughts and feelings when signaled to do so； often by
electronic pagers
II。The Functions of Consciousness
A。 The Uses of Consciousness
1。 To understand the functions of consciousness； the forces that control
behavior must be understood
2。 Early human ancestors believed in animistic explanations of behavior；
that spiritual forces guided all forms of life
3。 Contemporary researchers have replaced the role of spirits with the
concepts of consciousness and mind
B。 Aiding Survival
1。 Consciousness probably evolved because it helped individuals make
sense of and navigate in the environment。 Consciousness aids
adaptation to the environment in three ways：
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
a） Consciousness performs a restrictive function and tunes out
much information that is irrelevant to immediate goals
b） Consciousness performs a selective storage function for those
special stimuli that are to be analyzed； interpreted； and acted
on
c） Consciousness performs a planning or executive control
function that enables the suppression of strong desires when
they conflict with moral； ethical； or practical concerns
C。 Personal and Cultural Constructions of Reality
1。 A personal construction of reality is an individual’s unique
interpretation of a current situation based on knowledge； memories；
needs； values； beliefs； and goals
a） When a personal construction of reality remains stable over
time； a sense of self or consciousness of self has continuity
over time
2。 Cultural constructions of reality are ways of thinking about the world
that are shared by most members of a particular group of people
3。 Consensual validation is the mutual affirmation of conscious
constructions of reality
D。 Studying the Functions of Consciousness
1。 Researchers use the SLIP （Spoonerisms of Laboratory Induced
Predisposition） technique to study the way in which unconscious
forces affect speech errors
III。 Sleep and Dreams
A。 Circadian rhythms–the human time cycle–influence arousal levels； metabolism； heart
rate； body temperature； hormonal activity； and other bodily processes。 Circadian rhythms
are close to 24 hours。
1。 Mismatches between circadian rhythms and environmental clocks can
affect how individuals feel； as it does in jet lag
2。 About a third of each circadian rhythm is devoted to sleep
B。 The Sleep Cycle
1。 The electroencephalogram （EEG）； which records electrical brain wave
activity； provided a methodological breakthrough in sleep research。
2。 As an individual prepares for bed； brain wave activity averages about
14 cycles per second （cps）
3。 Stage 1 sleep is characterized by brain waves of about 3 to 7 cps
4。 Stage 2 sleep is characterized by sleep spindles； minute bursts of
electrical activity of 12 to 16 cps
5。 Stage 3 sleep is characterized by deep relaxation and brain wave
activity of about 1 to 2 cps
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CHAPTER 6： MIND； CONSCIOUSNESS； AND ALTERED STATES
6。 Stage 4 sleep is characterized by even deeper relaxation and very slow
brain wave activity
7。 REM （Rapid Eye Movement） sleep is characterized by a return to brain
wave activity similar to that found in stages 1 and 2； by the rapid eye
movements for which this stage is named； and by the presence of
dreams
8。 The first four stages of sleep require about 90 minutes。 REM sleep
about 10 minutes。 During the course of a night； this 100…minute cycle
is repeated four to six times。
C。 Why Sleep？
1。 The two most general functions of NREM sleep are conservation and
restoration
a） Sleep helps conserve energy because it often occurs when
foraging for food； searching for mates； or moving about is
unnecessary or dangerous
b） Sleep serves a restorative function because neurotransmitters
and neuromodulators may be synthesized and their balance
restored during sleep
2。 The function of REM sleep appears to be related to the maintenance of
mood and emotion； storing memories； and fitting recent experiences
into existing memories。 REM sleep may also restore the balance of the
brain after NREM sleep。
D。 Sleep Disorders
1。 Insomnia is the inability to get a satisfactory amount or quality of sleep
and is characterized by an inability to fall asleep； frequent arousal； or
early morning awakening
2。 Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder characterized by a periodic pulsion
to sleep during the daytime
3。 Sleep Apnea is an upper respiratory sleep disorder in which the person
stops breathing while asleep； which causes the sufferer to awake
immediately and begin breathing again
4。 Excessive Daytime Sleepiness is the major plaint of individuals
evaluated at sleep disorder centers。 About one…third of adults report
excessive sleepiness during the daytime。
E。 Dreams： Theater of the Mind
1。 Most dreams take place during REM sleep。 Dreams that take place
during NREM sleep tend to be full of specific thoughts but devoid of
dramatic content or vivid sensory imagery。
2。 NREM dreams are recalled less often than REM dreams； but NREM
dreaming is enhanced during the very late morning hours。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
3。 Most cultures instill the belief that dreams have meaning； but they do
so in diverse ways
a） The most prominent Western theory of dreams was proposed
by Sigmund Freud
b） Freud believed dreams to be “the royal road to the
unconscious”
c） In The Interpretation of Dreams； Freud made dreams a
cornerstone of psychoanalysis。 Dreams； to Freud； were “wish
fulfillment” of powerful； unconscious desires that were
disguised in dream form。
d） The latent content of a dream referred to the hidden wish or
meaning of the dream
e） This latent content is transformed into a disguised form； or
manifest content； through the process of dream work
f） Dream work takes forbidden wishes and transforms them into
often bizarre but acceptable forms that are experienced as
dreams
g） The interpretation of dreams requires working backward from
the manifest content to the latent content； to revealing the
unconscious wishes expressed in the dream
h） Freud’s theory of dream interpretation relates dream symbols；
which may have both universal and personal meanings； to
his explicit theory of psychology
4。 Non…Western Approaches to Dream Interpretation
a） In many non…Western cultures； dream interpretation is part of
the fabric of the culture
b） In the Mayan culture； shamans function as dream interpreters
and play a central role in Mayan interpersonal relations and
in tying the Mayan culture to their ancestral roots
c） In other cultures； such as the people of the Ingessana Hills
（bordering Ethiopia and Sudan） and the Kapolo Indians of
Brazil； dreams represent visions of the future
F。 Physiological Theories of Dream Content
1。 Represent