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1。 What role does the scientific method play in contemporary psychology？ What are the limitations of
the scientific method； and are there any better alternatives available？ Students are often skeptical of
the scientific method and are eager to point out its flaws； such as the slow incremental progress it
generates； its reliance on measurable phenomena； its susceptibility to experimenter biases； and its
sterile methodology。 Students often fail to realize； however； that； although it may be flawed； the
scientific method is the best tool we have to generate valid； reliable knowledge and that it has
provided us with a wealth of discoveries。
2。 What psychological principles have bee part of the larger culture； have penetrated our thinking
and language？ Psychological principles permeate advertising； marketing； television； movies； sales；
self…help books； fashion； politics； and folk wisdom； to name a few； but students are often unaware of
this influence。 Pointing out this influence is a good way to keep your students’ interest。 For
example； the concept of “psychological stress；” so prevalent in our cultural landscape； was rarely
mentioned 50 years ago。
3。 Ask your students how many of them believe in determinism。 Then ask them many of them believe
in free will。 Insist that they cannot have it both ways。 You will be surprised to find that many； if not
most； students believe in free will。 This is a terrific discussion starter； because it conflicts with one
of the fundamental assumptions of science and psychology–determinism。 You might ask your
students what science can hope to reveal if the world is not determined。 You might also suggest
that what feels like free will to us may be thinly disguised determinism。 This simple discussion is
often enough to change the manner in which students view themselves and the manner in which
they view those around them。
SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
The Ethics of Animal Research
The use of animals in research is a controversial topic； and one certain to generate animated class
discussion。 One reason that it is controversial is that it touches on fundamental values； attitudes； and
ethical and moral issues。 Psychologists are interested in these issues from both a scientific and a human
perspective。 As scientists； psychologists may ask why others are so emotionally captivated by the issue；
why some individuals seem more concerned with protecting animals than with protecting humans； why a
secure life in a cage is worse than an uncertain life in the wild； and what scientific justification there is to
preclude research on animals。 As humans； psychologists may be moved by passion for caged animals；
feel empathy at the animals lack of understanding of what is happening to them； and be morally convinced
that researchers have no more right to force an animal to participate in research than they do in forcing
humans to participate。
Of course； there are no easy answers to these questions； but there is an interesting way to view animal
research that many people have not considered。 Animal research benefits humans to the extent that
findings from research with them are generalizable to humans。 Because of this problem of transfer of results
from animals to humans； the most beneficial research is often done on animals that are most closely related
to humans； such as chimpanzees。 For example； much research on FHV and ADDS is done on monkeys；
because their immune systems function much like humans and because they are susceptible to a virus； SIV；
that is closely related to FHV。 These monkeys； however； share 99 percent of their genetic material with
humans。 If the reason that we do not use humans in some types of research is because it is unethical； it
would seem that the more closely an animal was related to humans； the less ethical it would be to use them
in similar research。 An argument can be made that the more closely an animal is related to humans； the
more like a human it should be treated。 According to this reasoning； chimpanzees should be treated like
human participants。 Thus； there is a quandary between how generalizable animal research is to humans
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CHAPTER 2： RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
and how much like humans animals should be treated。 What do your students think about this line of
reasoning？
Experimental Design
The overarching goals of the following exercise are to demonstrate how psychology and the scientific
method can be used to address issues that interest your students； to teach them how them how the concepts
they are learning influence experimental design； and to impress on them an appreciation for the challenges
faced by experimental psychologists。 Lead your class through the process of designing an experiment。 Start
with a hypothesis generated through brainstorming by the class。 Allowing your students to provide the
hypothesis ensures that it will interest them and that they will stay engaged。 Students may start with topics
such as alien abduction； crop circles； and the Loch Ness monster。 Wele this； as it gives you a terrific
opportunity to talk about alternative explanations； existence proofs； and the fact that some topics； such as
the proof of the existence of God； remain firmly outside the boundaries of science。 The scientific method is
not a panacea； it is a highly structured method for testing measurable factors and relationships。 After your
class has agreed on an issue to test； lead them toward a consensus； testable hypothesis about the issue。
Once your class has clearly defined a hypothesis； lead them through a discussion of possible alternative
explanations。 Challenge their hypothesis and their beliefs。 Are there other possible explanations that are
more simple and more likely？ What assumptions and possible biases underlie their hypothesis？ How
would the hypothesis （and their assumptions and biases） generated by your class be different than
explanations put forward by people from different cultures and different times？ You might want to mention
that spirit possession was a widely held explanation for mental illness until relatively recently。 After listing
a number of possible alternative explanations； allow your class to suggest a very basic methodology for
testing the hypothesis and eliminating the alternative explanations。 You might want to give them a head
start by suggesting the kind of data that they would need to collect to measure the variables of interest。
Depending on the hypothesis chosen and the sophistication of your class； outlining a reasonable
experiment may be a difficult process。 If the class begins to show signs of overload； you can quickly switch
gears and use the exercise to demonstrate the difficulty in designing and executing well…controlled
experiments。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILES
Sir Francis Galton （1822–1911）
Few psychologists are credited with more firsts than Galton； the cousin of Charles Darwin。 A child prodigy；
Galton could read by 2。 years old and by six was reading Shakespeare for pleasure。 He graduated from
Cambridge University in 1843； but never obtained a graduate degree。 Because he was independently
wealthy； as were many early psychologists； Galton was free to follow his passion； and his passion led him
to measurement； first of geography and then of humans。 Galton first gained fame as a cartographer for the
Royal Geographical Society on a trip to Africa。 On his return to England； Galton took his cousin’s notion of
the importance of individual differences to evolution； and set about measuring these differences in humans。
Galton was the first to use questionnaires； the first to study the nature–nurture controversy； the first to use a
word…association test； the first to study twins； and the first to study intelligence testing seriously。 Galton’s
work also spawned the creation of the ubiquitous correlation coefficient； r； by his student Charles
Spearman。
Edward Titchener （1867–1927）
Edward Titchener attended Oxford from 1885 to 1890； where he became interested in experimental
psychology and translated Wundt’s Principles of Physiological Psychology into English。 After graduating
from Oxford； Titchener spent two years studying with Wundt in Leipzig。 After receiving his Ph。D。 in 1892；
Titchener took a job at Cornell University； where he remained for his entire career。 While at Cornell；
Titchener developed a thriving department and became the leading exponent of structuralism in America。
Titchener adopted Wundt’s technique of introspection to the study of observable conscious events and
sought to describe the contents of mental life。 Although not successful in his goal of creating a periodic table
of mental events； much like the periodic table of physical elements； Titchener exerted a profound influence
over the development of psychology in America； through both his ideas and the ambitious research
program that he led at Cornell。
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CHAPTER 2： RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
TIMELINE
Year Event
1811 Charles Bell and Francois Magendie discovered that there are two types of nerves： sensory and