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represented by “r”。 r can vary between …1。0 and ＋1。0； where …1。0 represents a
perfect negative correlation； and ＋1。0 represents a perfect positive correlation。
A correlation of 0 indicates that there is no relationship between the variables。
In much research on personality traits； r’s are modest–between 。10 and 。30。
2。 A positive correlation means that as one set of two scores increases； so does the
other set。 For example； as height increases； weight also tends to increase。
3。 A negative correlation means that as one set of scores increases； the other set
decreases。 For example； as physical exercise increases； weight tends to
decrease。
4。 A critical caveat to the correlational method is that correlation does not imply
causation。 Simply because a researcher finds that two variables are related
does not mean that one variable necessarily causes the change in the other
variable。 This warning is important because it is difficult； if not impossible； to
know which variable is causing the change in the other； and there is always
the possibility that a third； unknown； variable is causing the change in both or
is the key mediating variable between them。
a） Psychological researchers have used the experimental method to
demonstrate that subliminal self…help tapes offer nothing more than
placebo effects。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
III。 Psychological Measurement
A。 Two main challenges to psychological measurement： Achieving Reliability and achieving Validity
1。 Reliability refers to the consistency or dependability of results from research。 If
we consider throwing darts at a dartboard； reliability would be measured by
how closely the darts group together。 If the darts reliably hit the same spot；
even if it is not the bull’s…eye； the throws are reliable。
2。 Validity refers to how accurately the research actually measures the
psychological variable under study。 For instance； does the self…esteem scale
used in research accurately measure self…esteem； or does it measure something
closer to self…presentation style？ If we again consider throwing darts； validity
would be measured by how closely the darts came to the spot that the thrower
wanted to hit。 If you wanted all of your darts to hit the bull’s…eye and they did；
your throws would have been both valid （they hit the intended mark） and
reliable （all of them hit the same mark）。
B。 Self…Report Measures
1。 Self…report measures are written or spoken responses to questions posed by the
researcher
a） A questionnaire is a self…report measure on which a respondent replies
to a written list of questions
b） Questions on self…report measures may be open…ended； which allow
respondents to answer freely in their own words； or forced choice；
which provide respondents with a number of alternatives； such as
“yes；” “no；” and “undecided；” from which to choose。
c） An interview is an interactive dialogue between a researcher and an
individual for obtaining detailed information。 Good interviewers
establish positive rapport with interviewees； which facilitates self…
disclosure and responses that are more honest。
C。 Behavioral Measures and Observations
1。 Behavioral measures and observations are ways to study overt actions and
observable； recordable reactions
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CHAPTER 2： RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
a） Planned； controlled； systematic observation is an important source of
behavioral data
b） Direct observation involves observation of behavior that is clearly
visible and easily recorded
c） Naturalistic observation occurs in a natural setting； such as the
playground or in the wild； rather than in an artificial； highly contrived
laboratory setting
2。 Case study research focuses on a single individual rather than on large
numbers of participants。
IV。 Ethical Issues in Human and Animal Research
A。 At the core of the ethical treatment of both humans and animals is the question of whether the
potential gains from the proposed research outweigh the expected or potential costs。 Colleges have
established review boards to help researchers make this decision； and the American Psychological
Association （APA） has established guidelines to ensure that research is conducted ethically。 For
humans； these guidelines include the following：
B。 Informed Consent
1。 Whenever possible； participants must be informed about the nature of the
experiment in which they may participate and； after being informed； must
consent to participate。 They are also informed that their consent is conditional
and that they can withdraw it at any time without penalty。
C。 Risk / Gain Assessment
1。 Not only do researchers have a responsibility to weigh potential risks of an
experiment against its potential benefits； they also have a responsibility to do
everything in their power to minimize risk to participants； whether they are
human or nonhuman； and to optimize the possible benefits to the participants
and to society
D。 Intentional Deception： APA guidelines make it clear that intentional deception is justified only if：
1。 The study has sufficient scientific and educational importance to warrant
deception
2。 There is no equally effective alternative to deception
3。 Participants are not deceived concerning aspects of the experiment that would
affect their willingness to participate
4。 The deception； and the reasons for it； is fully explained to the participants at
the conclusion of the research
E。 Debriefing
1。 At the conclusion of participation in an experiment； each participant must be
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
told the rationale for the experiment。 This debriefing gives the participant an
opportunity to learn about psychology and themselves； and allows them to
appreciate more fully their experience in the experiment。
F。 Issues in Animal Research： Science； Ethics； Politics
1。 The benefits of animal research include： development and assessment of drugs
that treat anxiety； mental illness； and Parkinson’s disease； knowledge about
drug addition and neuromuscular disorders； and possible treatments and
cures for AIDS。 Animal research not only benefits humans； but has led to many
important vaccines for animals as well。
2。 Despite these acplishments； some believe that it is immoral and
inappropriate to use animals in research。
a） Animals cannot be informed about the nature of the experiment and
thus cannot give their informed consent； as the APA requires with
humans。
b） Because of the sensitive nature of the debate and the fact that animals
cannot give informed consent； reasoned proponents of animal rights
create a moral context in which individual researchers must judge
their research under the highest level of passion and scrutiny
c） Just as it has for human participants； the APA has set strict guidelines
for the treatment of nonhuman participants。 These guidelines state
that：
（i） Facilities for nonhuman participants must be adequate in
size； be well maintained； and have qualified staff
（ii） The health of the animals and their general well…being must
be monitored
（iii） Every effort must be made to minimize pain and disfort
for the animals
（iv） Alternative； less stressful procedures； such as puter
modeling； must be used whenever possible
V。Being a Wiser Research Consumer
A。 One goal of Psychology and Life； 16th Edition is to help your students bee more critical
thinkers。 Critical thinking goes beyond the information given and delves beneath slick appearances；
with the goal of understanding substance without being seduced by style。 Some general rules to keep
in mind to be a more critical thinker include：
1。 Avoid the assumption that correlation equals causation。 It does not。
2。 Be sure that critical terms and concepts are operationally defined so that you
can be sure of their meaning
3。 Before seeking confirming evidence for a theory； look for disconfirming
evidence。 Confirming evidence is easy to find when you are looking for it。
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CHAPTER 2： RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
4。 Always seek alternative explanations that explain results more simply or
pletely； especially when researchers have a stake in the proposed
explanation。 Occam’s Razor is a rule of thumb that proposes that
parsimonious； simple explanations are preferable to plex ones。
5。 Be alert for signs that personal biases may have distorted the research process
and findings
6。 Be suspicious of simple answers to plex problems
7。 When confronted with claims that something is more effective； better； or
superior； be sure that you understand to what it is being pared
8。 Maintain an open mind and a healthy skepticism。 All conclusions are subject
to revision； and some truly novel； bizarre ideas will be correct。
9。 Challenge authority that is unjust； values opinion over evidence； and is not
open to constructive criticism
10。 Of course； all of these suggestions should be applied to your reading of
Psychology and Life！
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 What role does the scientific method play in contemporary psychology？ What are the limitations of
the