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values but as self…evident truths。 They are a major contributor to racial differences in the quality
of employment； housing； schooling； health care； and nutrition。 They also contribute to crime and
violence and； in other cultures and other times； have led to “holy wars。”
Overt Racism
Under the banner of the “white man’s burden；” colonialists exploited the resources of black
Africa。 Native Americans were deprived of their land； liberty； and ecological niche in the United
States by newly arrived European immigrants whose desires for wealth； homesteads； and new
frontiers were in conflict with the “menace of the red savages。” The “yellow peril” was another
journalistic fiction； used to set people’s thinking against Americans of Asian ancestry。 After their
usefulness was over as laborers on the railroads； in the mines； and other manual jobs； the press
and labor groups mounted campaigns to deport the Chinese； and to deprive both Chinese and
Japanese immigrants of the rights and privileges of American citizenship。 Over 100；000 Japanese
Americans were put into concentration camps in the Western states during World War II。 Their
property was sold at small return； and millions of dollars were held by the government and used
by American bankers for 30 years without interest。 Nothing parable was done to those of
German or Italian ancestry； America’s other two enemies during that same war。
When a group bees the target of prejudice and discrimination； it is socially segregated；
preventing normal interchange and blocking or destroying channels of munication。 This
isolation； in turn； allows rumors and stereotypes to go unchecked； fantasies to surface and grow；
and the “strangeness” of the group； real and fancied； to increase over time。 The isolation of
Native Americans on reservations and the racially segregated housing patterns in our cities
increase the alienation between groups and prevent both reality checks and causal interaction。
Covert Racism
The public opinion poll is one way of assessing the extent of racism in a society。 If you can
believe what people say； there is a decreasing amount of negative stereotyping and adverse
attitudes of whites toward African Americans in the United States。 Americans seem to be
changing their attitudes about racial integration。
Are overt expressions of prejudice diminishing or merely being suppressed？ Measures of covert
racial prejudice use content analysis of public media to discern if the same old attitudes are still
there； but under wraps。 One study deserves to be highlighted for the subtle form of covert racism
it reveals； so subtle that you have probably been exposed to it and never realized its impact on
your thinking。
A blind psychology professor； Raymond Rainville； found that while listening to live broadcasts
of professional football games he was able to identify the race of the players although it was
never mentioned。 Rainville reasoned that the white announcers were municating messages
369
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
about basic racial differences； perhaps at an unconscious level。 Transcripts of the televised
mentaries of sixteen NFL games were analyzed according to a variety of content categories。
The researchers pared descriptions of an African American and a white player of the same
position who had parable performance statistics； such as running backs O。 J。 Simpson and
Larry Csonka。 Players were designated as “Smith” or “Jones；” and names of teams； teammates；
and cities were disguised。 Three independent raters were able to identify each player correctly as
African American or white on 1 of 25 rating categories；
All differences found were favorable to whites and unfavorable to African Americans。 Whites
were significantly more often：
。 Recipients of sympathy； positive focus； and play…related praise
。 Described as executors of aggression
。 Credited with positive cognitive and physical attributes。
African Americans were more often described as：
。 Being the recipients of aggression
。 Having a negative； nonprofessional record； such as problems in college or with the
police （Rainville & McCormick； 1977）
All of these players were exceptional athletes； yet the white players were described as active
causal agents on the field and the African American players as passive objects moved by external
forces。
Reducing Racism
Once established； prejudice and racism are relatively resistant to extinction because of the several
needs they may serve for the individuals and the group； and the many conditions that may
encourage and maintain existing attitudes。 Although progress has been made in reducing
prejudice and racism； a tremendous amount of progress remains to be acplished。
Here are some techniques we can use to reduce racism：
。 Change actions： Research has shown that contact between antagonistic groups can
promote better intergroup relations and lessen existing hostilities。 Mere exposure；
however； does not help and is more likely to intensify existing attitudes。 Changes as a
result of contact are most likely to occur when the contact is rewarding rather than
thwarting； when a mutual interest or goal is served； when status is equal； and when the
participants perceive that the contact was the result of their own choice。
。 Change the rules and the reinforcements： Although “righteousness cannot be legislated；” a
new law or regulation provides a new system of rewards and punishments and can
thereby create a new social norm that then bees a powerful influence on individuals
to conform to the new pattern。 The same results may be achieved by more informal
agreements to change “ground rules。”
。 Change the self…image of victims of prejudice： Young people who are targets of prejudice may
be “inoculated” against its crippling psychological effects and thus be helped to develop
and demonstrate their real potentials if they establish a sense of pride in their origins；
history； and group identity。 The “Black is beautiful” slogan represents an effective
instance of this approach； as do “Gray Power” and “Gay Pride。”
。 Change petitive encounters to cooperative ones： Environments that foster interpersonal
petition are often breeding grounds for envy； jealousy； hostility； and self…derogation。
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CHAPTER 18： SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY； SOCIETY； AND CULTURE
By creating conditions in which students must depend on one another for learning
required material； teachers can help overe some interracial conflicts that exist in
traditional classrooms。 When every member’s contribution is equally valuable； students
feel like partners rather than petitors； and those in desegregated settings can discover
the advantages of sharing knowledge and friendship with “equal and interdependent”
peers…regardless of race； creed； or sex。
In…Groups； Out…Groups； and Groupthink
The groupthink hypothesis proposes that members of small cohesive units have a tendency to
maintain esprit de corps through the unconscious development of shared illusions and related
norms。 These norms subsequently interfere with the group’s critical thinking and reality testing
（Janis； 1972）。 The groupthink phenomenon offers an exemplar of the in…group/out…group； us…
against…them scenario。 It is an annoying phenomenon at best； and a dangerous one at worst。
Consider the philosophies of a small group； caught up in the illusion of its own invulnerability；
its excluding any ideas from outside the group； and controlled by leadership tactics that subtly
sanction members who dare to suggest alternative courses of action or raise critical issues。 The
guiding premise of groupthink is； “If our leader and everyone else in our group decides that it is
okay； the plan is bound to succeed。 Even if it is quite risky； luck will be on our side。” （Janis； 1972；
in Frost； Mitchell； & Nord； 1982； p。 350）。
Groupthink is the epitome of the “my…mind…is…made…up； don’t…confuse…me…with…facts” mentality。
This mentality is carefully guarded by all members of the group。 This collective behavior tends to
surface in times of crisis and effectively closes off input from any source outside the group。
Reliance of the group on consensual validation replaces critical thinking by any one member；
reality testing is shunned。 Members of the group share an illusion of unanimity； with the blanket
assumption that all members concur in the position of the group’s leader（s）； creating an
atmosphere of assumed consensus of thought。
Janis （1972） offered eight characteristics of the groupthink mentality。
1。 Illusion of invulnerability： Overemphasis of group strengths； and exaggeration of the
capacity to plete a risky course of action。
2。 Rationalization of negative information： Collective discounting and rationalization of
warnings of imminent danger resulting from pursuit of a specific course of action。
3。 Stereotyping of out…group： Sharing of distorted perceptions of rivals as being：
Too weak or stupid to pose a viable threat
Too stupid to negotiate with
4。 Assumption of morality： A belief that the inherent morality of the group