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over the fire； esteeming this an infallible means of preserving them from disease and witchcraft。 We have seen that squirrels were sometimes burned in the Easter fire。
Thus it appears that the sacrificial rites of the Celts of ancient Gaul can be traced in the popular festivals of modern Europe。 Naturally it is in France； or rather in the wider area comprised within the limits of ancient Gaul； that these rites have left the clearest traces in the customs of burning giants of wicker…work and animals enclosed in wicker…work or baskets。 These customs； it will have been remarked； are generally observed at or about midsummer。 From this we may infer that the original rites of which these are the degenerate successors were solemnised at midsummer。 This inference harmonises with the conclusion suggested by a general survey of European folk…custom； that the midsummer festival must on the whole have been the most widely diffused and the most solemn of all the yearly festivals celebrated by the primitive Aryans in Europe。 At the same time we must bear in mind that among the British Celts the chief fire…festivals of the year appear certainly to have been those of Beltane （May Day） and Hallowe'en （the last day of October）； and this suggests a doubt whether the Celts of Gaul also may not have celebrated their principal rites of fire； including their burnt sacrifices of men and animals； at the beginning of May or the beginning of November rather than at Midsummer。
We have still to ask； What is the meaning of such sacrifices？ Why were men and animals burnt to death at these festivals？ If we are right in interpreting the modern European fire…festivals as attempts to break the power of witchcraft by burning or banning the witches and warlocks； it seems to follow that we must explain the human sacrifices of the Celts in the same manner； that is； we must suppose that the men whom the Druids burnt in wicker…work images were condemned to death on the ground that they were witches or wizards； and that the mode of execution by fire was chosen because burning alive is deemed the surest mode of getting rid of these noxious and dangerous beings。 The same explanation would apply to the cattle and wild animals of many kinds which the Celts burned along with the men。 They； too； we may conjecture； were supposed to be either under the spell of witchcraft or actually to be the witches and wizards； who had transformed themselves into animals for the purpose of prosecuting their infernal plots against the welfare of their fellow…creatures。 This conjecture is confirmed by the observation that the victims most commonly burned in modern bonfires have been cats； and that cats are precisely the animals into which； with the possible exception of hares； witches were most usually supposed to transform themselves。 Again； we have seen that serpents and foxes used sometimes to be burnt in the midsummer fires； and Welsh and German witches are reported to have assumed the form both of foxes and serpents。 In short； when we remember the great variety of animals whose forms witches can assume at pleasure； it seems easy on this hypothesis to account for the variety of living creatures that have been burnt at festivals both in ancient Gaul and modern Europe； all these victims； we may surmise； were doomed to the flames； not because they were animals； but because they were believed to be witches who had taken the shape of animals for their nefarious purposes。 One advantage of explaining the ancient Celtic sacrifices in this way is that it introduces； as it were； a harmony and consistency into the treatment which Europe has meted out to witches from the earliest times down to about two centuries ago； when the growing influence of rationalism discredited the belief in witchcraft and put a stop to the custom of burning witches。 Be that as it may； we can now perhaps understand why the Druids believed that the more persons they sentenced to death； the greater would be the fertility of the land。 To a modern reader the connexion at first sight may not be obvious between the activity of the hangman and the productivity of the earth。 But a little reflection may satisfy him that when the criminals who perish at the stake or on the gallows are witches； whose delight it is to blight the crops of the farmer or to lay them low under storms of hail； the execution of these wretches is really calculated to ensure an abundant harvest by removing one of the principal causes which paralyse the efforts and blast the hopes of the husbandman。
The Druidical sacrifices which we are considering were explained in a different way by W。 Mannhardt。 He supposed that the men whom the Druids burned in wicker…work images represented the spirits of vegetation； and accordingly that the custom of burning them was a magical ceremony intended to secure the necessary sunshine for the crops。 Similarly； he seems to have inclined to the view that the animals which used to be burnt in the bonfires represented the cornspirit； which； as we saw in an earlier part of this work； is often supposed to assume the shape of an animal。 This theory is no doubt tenable； and the great authority of W。 Mannhardt entitles it to careful consideration。 I adopted it in former editions of this book； but on reconsideration it seems to me on the whole to be less probable than the theory that the men and animals burnt in the fires perished in the character of witches。 This latter view is strongly supported by the testimony of the people who celebrate the fire…festivals； since a popular name for the custom of kindling the fires is burning the witches； effigies of witches are sometimes consumed in the flames； and the fires； their embers； or their ashes are supposed to furnish protection against witchcraft。 On the other hand there is little to show that the effigies or the animals burnt in the fires are regarded by the people as representatives of the vegetation…spirit； and that the bonfires are sun…charms。 With regard to serpents in particular； which used to be burnt in the midsummer fire at Luchon； I am not aware of any certain evidence that in Europe snakes have been regarded as embodiments of the tree…spirit or corn…spirit； though in other parts of the world the conception appears to be not unknown。 Whereas the popular faith in the transformation of witches into animals is so general and deeply rooted； and the fear of these uncanny beings is so strong； that it seems safer to suppose that the cats and other animals which were burnt in the fire suffered death as embodiments of witches than that they perished as representatives of vegetation…spirits。
Chapter 65。 Balder and the Mistletoe THE READER may remember that the preceding account of the popular fire…festivals of Europe was suggested by the myth of the Norse god Balder； who is said to have been slain by a branch of mistletoe and burnt in a great fire。 We have now to enquire how far the customs which have been passed in review help to shed light on the myth。 In this enquiry it may be convenient to begin with the mistletoe； the instrument of Balder's death。
From time immemorial the mistletoe has been the object of superstitious veneration in Europe。 It was worshipped by the Druids； as we learn from a famous passage of Pliny。 After enumerating the different kinds of mistletoe； he proceeds： In treating of this subject； the admiration in which the mistletoe is held throughout Gaul ought not to pass unnoticed。 The Druids； for so they call their wizards； esteem nothing more sacred than the mistletoe and the tree on which it grows； provided only that the tree is an oak。 But apart from this they choose oak…woods for their sacred groves and perform no sacred rites without oak…leaves； so that the very name of Druids may be regarded as a Greek appellation derived from their worship of the oak。 For they believe that whatever grows on these trees is sent from heaven； and is a sign that the tree has been chosen by the god himself。 The mistletoe is very rarely to be met with； but when it is found； they gather it with solemn ceremony。 This they do above all on the sixth day of the moon； from whence they date the beginnings of their months； of their years； and of their thirty years' cycle； because by the sixth day the moon has plenty of vigour and has not run half its course。 After due preparations have been made for a sacrifice and a feast under the tree； they hail it as the universal healer and bring to the spot two white bulls； whose horns have never been bound before。 A priest clad in a white robe climbs the tree and with a golden sickle cuts the mistletoe； which is caught in a white cloth。 Then they sacrifice the victims； praying that God may make his own gift to prosper with those upon whom he has bestowed it。 They believe that a potion prepared from mistletoe will make barren animals to bring forth； and that the plant is a remedy against all poison。
In another passage Pliny tells us that in medicine the mistletoe which grows on an oak was esteemed the most efficacious； and that its efficacy was by some superstitious people supposed to be increased if the plant was gathered on the first day of the moon without the use of iron； and if when gathered it was not allowed to touch the earth； oak…mistleto