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s and ornaments； tore it in pieces； trod the straw of which it was made under foot； and flung it into the stream； while the defenders of the figure hid their faces in their hands and pretended to bewail the death of Kostroma。 In the district of Kostroma the burial of Yarilo was celebrated on the twenty…ninth or thirtieth of June。 The people chose an old man and gave him a small coffin containing a Priapus…like figure representing Yarilo。 This he carried out of the town； followed by women chanting dirges and expressing by their gestures grief and despair。 In the open fields a grave was dug； and into it the figure was lowered amid weeping and wailing； after which games and dances were begun； calling to mind the funeral games celebrated in old times by the pagan Slavonians。 In Little Russia the figure of Yarilo was laid in a coffin and carried through the streets after sunset surrounded by drunken women； who kept repeating mournfully； He is dead！ he is dead！ The men lifted and shook the figure as if they were trying to recall the dead man to life。 Then they said to the women； Women； weep not。 I know what is sweeter than honey。 But the women continued to lament and chant； as they do at funerals。 Of what was he guilty？ He was so good。 He will arise no more。 O how shall we part from thee？ What is life without thee？ Arise； if only for a brief hour。 But he rises not； he not。 At last the Yarilo was buried in a grave。
7。 Death and Revival ofVegetation
THESE Russian customs are plainly of the same nature as those which in Austria and Germany are known as Carrying out Death。 Therefore if the interpretation here adopted of the latter is right； the Russian Kostrubonko； Yarilo； and the rest must also have been originally embodiments of the spirit of vegetation； and their death must have been regarded as a necessary preliminary to their revival。 The revival as a sequel to the death is enacted in the first of the ceremonies described； the death and resurrection of Kostrubonko。 The reason why in some of these Russian ceremonies the death of the spirit of vegetation is celebrated at midsummer may be that the decline of summer is dated from Midsummer Day； after which the days begin to shorten； and the sun sets out on his downward journey：
To the darksome hollows Where the frosts of winter lie。
Such a turning…point of the year； when vegetation might be thought to share the incipient though still almost imperceptible decay of summer； might very well be chosen by primitive man as a fit moment for resorting to those magic rites by which he hopes to stay the decline； or at least to ensure the revival； of plant life。
But while the death of vegetation appears to have been represented in all； and its revival in some； of these spring and midsummer ceremonies； there are features in some of them which can hardly be explained on this hypothesis alone。 The solemn funeral； the lamentations； and the mourning attire； which often characterise these rites； are indeed appropriate at the death of the beneficent spirit of vegetation。 But what shall we say of the glee with which the effigy is often carried out； of the sticks and stones with which it is assailed； and the taunts and curses which are hurled at it？ What shall we say of the dread of the effigy evinced by the haste with which the bearers scamper home as soon as they have thrown it away； and by the belief that some one must soon die in any house into which it has looked？ This dread might perhaps be explained by a belief that there is a certain infectiousness in the dead spirit of vegetation which renders its approach dangerous。 But this explanation； besides being rather strained； does not cover the rejoicings which often attend the carrying out of Death。 We must therefore recognise two distinct and seemingly opposite features in these ceremonies： on the one hand； sorrow for the death； and affection and respect for the dead； on the other hand； fear and hatred of the dead； and rejoicings at his death。 How the former of these features is to be explained I have attempted to show： how the latter came to be so closely associated with the former is a question which I shall try to answer in the sequel。
8。 Analogous Rites in India。
IN THE KANAGRA district of India there is a custom observed by young girls in spring which closely resembles some of the European spring ceremonies just described。 It is called the Ral？ Ka mela； or fair of Ral？； the Ral？ being a small painted earthen image of Siva or Parvat？。 The custom is in vogue all over the Kanagra district； and its celebration； which is entirely confined to young girls； lasts through most of Chet （March…April） up to the Sankrant of Baisakh （April）。 On a morning in March all the young girls of the village take small baskets of d？b grass and flowers to an appointed place； where they throw them in a heap。 Round this heap they stand in a circle and sing。 This goes on every day for ten days； till the heap of grass and flowers has reached a fair height。 Then they cut in the jungle two branches； each with three prongs at one end； and place them； prongs downwards； over the heap of flowers； so as to make two tripods or pyramids。 On the single uppermost points of these branches they get an image…maker to construct two clay images； one to represent Siva； and the other Parvat？。 The girls then divide themselves into two parties； one for Siva and one for Parvat？； and marry the images in the usual way； leaving out no part of the ceremony。 After the marriage they have a feast； the cost of which is defrayed by contributions solicited from their parents。 Then at the next Sankrant （Baisakh） they all go together to the river…side； throw the images into a deep pool； and weep over the place； as though they were performing funeral obsequies。 The boys of the neighbourhood often tease them by diving after the images； bringing them up； and waving them about while the girls are crying over them。 The object of the fair is said to be to secure a good husband。
That in this Indian ceremony the deities Siva and Parvat？ are conceived as spirits of vegetation seems to be proved by the placing of their images on branches over a heap of grass and flowers。 Here； as often in European folk…custom； the divinities of vegetation are represented in duplicate； by plants and by puppets。 The marriage of these Indian deities in spring corresponds to the European ceremonies in which the marriage of the vernal spirits of vegetation is represented by the King and Queen of May； the May Bride； Bridegroom of the May； and so forth。 The throwing of the images into the water； and the mourning for them； are the equivalents of the European customs of throwing the dead spirit of vegetation under the name of Death； Yarilo； Kostroma； and the rest； into the water and lamenting over it。 Again； in India； as often in Europe； the rite is performed exclusively by females。 The notion that the ceremony helps to procure husbands for the girls can be explained by the quickening and fertilising influence which the spirit of vegetation is believed to exert upon the life of man as well as of plants。
9。 The Magic Spring。
THE GENERAL explanation which we have been led to adopt of these and many similar ceremonies is that they are； or were in their origin； magical rites intended to ensure the revival of nature in spring。 The means by which they were supposed to effect this end were imitation and sympathy。 Led astray by his ignorance of the true causes of things； primitive man believed that in order to produce the great phenomena of nature on which his life depended he had only to imitate them； and that immediately by a secret sympathy or mystic influence the little drama which he acted in forest glade or mountain dell； on desert plain or wind…swept shore； would be taken up and repeated by mightier actors on a vaster stage。 He fancied that by masquerading in leaves and flowers he helped the bare earth to clothe herself with verdure； and that by playing the death and burial of winter he drove that gloomy season away； and made smooth the path for the footsteps of returning spring。 If we find it hard to throw ourselves even in fancy into a mental condition in which such things seem possible； we can more easily picture to ourselves the anxiety which the savage； when he first began to lift his thoughts above the satisfaction of his merely animal wants； and to meditate on the causes of things； may have felt as to the continued operation of what we now call the laws of nature。 To us； familiar as we are with the conception of the uniformity and regularity with which the great cosmic phenomena succeed each other； there seems little ground for apprehension that the causes which produce these effects will cease to operate； at least within the near future。 But this confidence in the stability of nature is bred only by the experience which comes of wide observation and long tradition； and the savage； with his narrow sphere of observation and his short…lived tradition； lacks the very elements of that experience which alone could set his mind at rest in face of the ever…changing and often menacing aspects of nature。 No wonder； therefore； that he is thrown into a panic by an eclipse； and thinks that the sun or the moon would surely perish； if