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clearly indicate the identity of the effigy with the wood…spirit by fixing it to the top of a tree in the wood； where it remains for a year； and is besought almost daily with prayers and offerings to protect the herds； for like a true wood…spirit the Metsik is a patron of cattle。 Sometimes the Metsik is made of sheaves of corn。
Thus we may fairly conjecture that the names Carnival； Death； and Summer are comparatively late and inadequate expressions for the beings personified or embodied in the customs with which we have been dealing。 The very abstractness of the names bespeaks a modern origin； for the personification of times and seasons like the Carnival and Summer； or of an abstract notion like death； is not primitive。 But the ceremonies themselves bear the stamp of a dateless antiquity； therefore we can hardly help supposing that in their origin the ideas which they embodied were of a more simple and concrete order。 The notion of a tree； perhaps of a particular kind of tree （for some savages have no word for tree in general）； or even of an individual tree； is sufficiently concrete to supply a basis from which by a gradual process of
generalisation the wider idea of a spirit of vegetation might be reached。 But this general idea of vegetation would readily be confounded with the season in which it manifests itself； hence the substitution of Spring； Summer； or May for the tree…spirit or spirit of vegetation would be easy and natural。 Again； the concrete notion of the dying tree or dying vegetation would by a similar process of generalisation glide into a notion of death in general； so that the practice of carrying out the dying or dead vegetation in spring； as a preliminary to its revival； would in time widen out into an attempt to banish Death in general from the village or district。 The view that in these spring ceremonies Death meant originally the dying or dead vegetation of winter has the high support of W。 Mannhardt； and he confirms it by the analogy of the name Death as applied to the spirit of the ripe corn。 Commonly the spirit of the ripe corn is conceived； not as dead； but as old； and hence it goes by the name of the Old Man or the Old Woman。 But in some places the last sheaf cut at harvest； which is generally believed to be the seat of the corn spirit； is called the Dead One： children are warned against entering the corn…fields because Death sits in the corn； and； in a game played by Saxon children in Transylvania at the maize harvest； Death is represented by a child completely covered with maize leaves。
5。 Battle of Summer and Winter。
SOMETIMES in the popular customs of the peasantry the contrast between the dormant powers of vegetation in winter and their awakening vitality in spring takes the form of a dramatic contest between actors who play the parts respectively of Winter and Summer。 Thus in the towns of Sweden on May Day two troops of young men on horseback used to meet as if for mortal combat。 One of them was led by a representative of Winter clad in furs； who threw snowballs and ice in order to prolong the cold weather。 The other troop was commanded by a representative of Summer covered with fresh leaves and flowers。 In the sham fight which followed the party of Summer came off victorious； and the ceremony ended with a feast。 Again； in the region of the middle Rhine； a representative of Summer clad in ivy combats a representative of Winter clad in straw or moss and finally gains a victory over him。 The vanquished foe is thrown to the ground and stripped of his casing of straw； which is torn to pieces and scattered about； while the youthful comrades of the two champions sing a song to commemorate the defeat of Winter by Summer。 Afterwards they carry about a summer garland or branch and collect gifts of eggs and bacon from house to house。 Sometimes the champion who acts the part of Summer is dressed in leaves and flowers and wears a chaplet of flowers on his head。 In the Palatinate this mimic conflict takes place on the fourth Sunday in Lent。 All over Bavaria the same drama used to be acted on the same day； and it was still kept up in some places down to the middle of the nineteenth century or later。 While Summer appeared clad all in green； decked with fluttering ribbons； and carrying a branch in blossom or a little tree hung with apples and pears； Winter was muffled up in cap and mantle of fur and bore in his hand a snow…shovel or a flail。 Accompanied by their respective retinues dressed in corresponding attire； they went through all the streets of the village； halting before the houses and singing staves of old songs； for which they received presents of bread； eggs； and fruit。 Finally； after a short struggle； Winter was beaten by Summer and ducked in the village well or driven out of the village with shouts and laughter into the forest。
At Goepfritz in Lower Austria； two men personating Summer and Winter used to go from house to house on Shrove Tuesday； and were everywhere welcomed by the children with great delight。 The representative of Summer was clad in white and bore a sickle； his comrade； who played the part of Winter； had a fur…cap on his head； his arms and legs were swathed in straw； and he carried a flail。 In every house they sang verses alternately。 At Dr？mling in Brunswick； down to the present time； the contest between Summer and Winter is acted every year at Whitsuntide by a troop of boys and a troop of girls。 The boys rush singing； shouting； and ringing bells from house to house to drive Winter away； after them come the girls singing softly and led by a May Bride； all in bright dresses and decked with flowers and garlands to represent the genial advent of spring。 Formerly the part of Winter was played by a straw…man which the boys carried with them； now it is acted by a real man in disguise。
Among the Central Esquimaux of North America the contest between representatives of summer and winter； which in Europe has long degenerated into a mere dramatic performance； is still kept up as a magical ceremony of which the avowed intention is to influence the weather。 In autumn； when storms announce the approach of the dismal Arctic winter； the Esquimaux divide themselves into two parties called respectively the ptarmigans and the ducks； the ptarmigans comprising all persons born in winter； and the ducks all persons born in summer。 A long rope of sealskin is then stretched out； and each party laying hold of one end of it seeks by tugging with might and main to drag the other party over to its side。 If the ptarmigans get the worst of it； then summer has won the game and fine weather may be expected to prevail through the winter。
6。 Death and Resurrection ofKostrubonko
I RUSSIA funeral ceremonies like those of Burying the Carnival and Carrying out Death are celebrated under the names； not of Death or the Carnival； but of certain mythic figures； Kostrubonko； Kostroma； Kupalo； Lada； and Yarilo。 These Russian ceremonies are observed both in spring and at midsummer。 Thus in Little Russia it used to be the custom at Eastertide to celebrate the funeral of a being called Kostrubonko； the deity of the spring。 A circle was formed of singers who moved slowly around a girl who lay on the ground as if dead； and as they went they sang：
'Dead； dead is our Kostrubonko！ Dead； dead is our dear one！'
until the girl suddenly sprang up； on which the chorus joyfully exclaimed：
'Come to life； come to life has our Kostrubonko！ Come to life； come to life has our dear one！'
On the Eve of St。 John （Midsummer Eve） a figure of Kupalo is made of straw and is dressed in woman's clothes； with a necklace and a floral crown。 Then a tree is felled； and； after being decked with ribbons； is set up on some chosen spot。 Near this tree； to which they give the name of Marena ＇Winter or Death＇； the straw figure is placed； together with a table； on which stand spirits and viands。 Afterwards a bonfire is lit； and the young men and maidens jump over it in couples； carrying the figure with them。 On the next day they strip the tree and the figure of their ornaments； and throw them both into a stream。 On St。 Peter's Day； the twenty…ninth of June； or on the following Sunday； the Funeral of Kostroma or of Lada or of Yarilo is celebrated in Russia。 In the Governments of Penza and Simbirsk the funeral used to be represented as follows。 A bonfire was kindled on the twenty…eighth of June； and on the next day the maidens chose one of their number to play the part of Kostroma。 Her companions saluted her with deep obeisances； placed her on a board； and carried her to the bank of a stream。 There they bathed her in the water； while the oldest girl made a basket of lime…tree bark and beat it like a drum。 Then they returned to the village and ended the day with processions； games； and dances。 In the Murom district Kostroma was represented by a straw figure dressed in woman's clothes and flowers。 This was laid in a trough and carried with songs to the bank of a lake or river。 Here the crowd divided into two sides； of which the one attacked and the other defended the figure。 At last the assailants gained the day； stripped the figure of its dress and ornaments； tore it in pieces； trod the straw of which it was made under foot； and flung it int