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human adjustments； where the natural characteristics and constitution of its moral
individuals are absorbed and built into the single substance of the living social whole。 It is
spirit as an objectively embodied whole of essentially spiritual individuals； without any
consciousness of opposition to one another or to the whole； and with an absolute
unbroken sense of their own security and fulfilment within the substance of social mind。 It
is spirit at the level of naive acquiescence in the law and order of conventional life。
But such a self…complete type of experience has various levels of realization。 It cannot
exist except through the union of opposing elements； and the central principle of all
experience； self…consciousness； which assumes here such a concrete form； has abundant
material on which to exercise its function of creating and uniting distinctions。 The first level
is deternlined by the fact that the substance of social life is constituted out of the
quasi…natural phenomena of human genus and species； of race and nationality； on the
one hand； and the purely natural element of specialized individual sex on the other。
These two aspects go together； the sex…relations of individuals maintain race and
nationality； the nation lives in and through its sexually distinct individuals。 The social order
as an rder is realized and maintained in the medium of these elements。 The fact that this
order is an order of universal mind gives it a permanence； an inviolability； an
absoluteness； which are inseparable from it； so inseparable that the order is looked on as
having its roots in the Absolute Mind； and as deriving its authority from it。 The social order
on this aspect consists of a divinely established and divinely sanctioned régime； the gods
are the guardians of the city； of the hearth and the home。 On the other hand the
expression of this order varies； and is enunciated from time to time in the history of a
community。 The order in this sense is made by man； the law of the social order thus
becomes a human law； determined by human conditions and human ends； it is a round of
conventions and customs。 These two forms of order are inseparable in the life of a
community； and they subsist together and side beside at this level of social
consciousness。 They may lead to conflict in the life of the individual in the community； and
have to be reconciled by force or otherwise； and they become associated and connected
with the fundamental differences of individuality above referred to。
The analysis of this level of social life constituted as above furnishes the argument of the
following section。 With Hegel's treatment of the relationships holding between Husband
and Wife； Parents and Children； Brothers and Sisters should be read Aristotle's discussion
of social fellowship in Eth。 Nicom。 Bks。 VIII； IX。
1。 Nation and Family
（a） Human Law
（b） Divine Law
（c） The claims of the Individual
2。 The Process involved in these Two Laws
（a） Government as Positive Power； War as Negative
（b） Man & Woman as Brother & Sister
（c） The Interfusion of these Two Laws
3。 Ethical World as Infinitude or Self…complete Totality
b。 Ethical action： knowledge human and Divine： Guilt and Destiny
Translator's comments： A fundamental condition of social order is that it is maintained by
action on the part of the individual members of a society； action is a fundamental principle
of distinction between individuals； is the way they make their contribution to social life； and
is also the way by which the continuance of social life is ceaselessly broken and
reconstituted。 In a comprehensive sense therefore action is the principle by which
distinction in unity is carried out in social life。 The consideration of its significance is thus
an essential problem of social mind。 Action must be considered at once with reference to
individuality and also with reference to those conceptions of social order as containing both
〃divine〃 and 〃human〃 law。 In the following section； this analysis is undertaken。
The specific historical background of Hegel's thought in this section； and to some extent in
the preceding section； is supplied by the social life of the Greek city state。 The Greek city
state has been taken as the type； so to say； of spiritual existence realized as a
self…complete ethical order。 But the social life of Greece is here in large measure read and
interpreted in the light of the dramatization of Greek ethical conceptions by the great
Greek tragedians； especially Sophocles。 This accounts for the repeated reference to the
purely dramatic conception of the 〃destiny〃 or the 〃pathic〃 element in the life of the
individual whose spiritual existence is completely bound up with the established social
order。 It is in Greece that we find most fully realized the all…sufficiency of the state for the
individual； which Hegel has here in view； a sufficiency which was at once the strength and
beauty； as well as the pathos and weakness； of Greek social life。
With this and the preceding section should be read Hegel's Philosophy of History； Part II；
〃The Greek World〃
（1） Contradiction of Individuality with its Essence
（2） Opposite Characteristics of Ethical Action
（3） Dissolution of the Ethical Being
c。 Legal status
Translator's comments： A further step in the realization of the principle of coherent sociality
is reached when the individual is invested with the universality of the social order by
definite enactments of the controlling agency of the social whole。 His contingency as an
individual is removed by his being expressly treated as a focal unity of the whole order；
whose very existence is staked on maintaining him as a emit with a universal significance；
and which stands or falls by maintaining him in this condition。 The universal order is in this
case no longer merely implicit； merely a matter of routine and custom； it is openly and
objectively expressed in and through each individual component of society。 The form this
takes is the differentiation of the social substance into a totality of 〃persons〃； each and all
invested with express universal； or legally acknowledged； significance。 This is the sphere of
legal personality； or of individuality constituted by a system of Rights。 It is a supreme
achievement of social existence； and the highest attainment of coherent social experience。
Hence the present section。
This is a condition or stage in every developed community。 But the specific historical
material for this section is derived from the law — constituted social order of the Roman
Empire； especially the Empire under the Antonines。 Here； whether by coincidence or
otherwise； the culmination of imperial rule and the 〃golden age〃 of law synchronized。 The
triumph of Roman imperial government and the perfecting of the system of Roman
jurisprudence were accomplished during the same period of time； about A。D。 131…235。
There is every reason to suppose that the two necessarily arose and fell together； and that
the decline and disappearance of the Roman law…constituted state should thus prepare the
way for a further achievement of the social spirit of humanity。 Hence the historical
justification for the transition to the next stage of social life； that of self…discordant
spiritual existence。
With this section should be read Hegel's Philosophy of History； Part III； especially the
introduction to this part； and Sect。 III； c。 1。； 〃Rome under the Emperors。〃
（1） Personality
（2） Contingency of the Person
（3） The Absolute Person
B。 Spirit in self…estrangement： the discipline of culture and civilization
Translator's comments： The life of spirit as found in the social self…consciousness has two
fundamental factors； the universal spirit or social whole as such； and the individual
member as such。 The interrelation of these constitutes the spiritual existence of society。
Each by itself is abstract； but the realization of complete spiritual life through and in each
is absolutely essen