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bserve that the first volume of Buckle's work was published just two years before） and of 〃The Descent of Man〃 （1871）； the hypothesis of Lamarck that man is the co…descendant with other species of some lower extinct form was admitted to have been raised to the rank of an established fact by most thinkers whose brains were not working under the constraint of theological authority。
One important effect of the discovery of this fact （I am not speaking now of the Darwinian explanation） was to assign to history a definite place in the coordinated whole of knowledge； and relate it more closely to other sciences。 It had indeed a defined logical place in systems such as Hegel's and Comte's； but Darwinism certified its standing convincingly and without more ado。 The prevailing doctrine that man was created ex abrupto had placed history in an isolated position； disconnected with the sciences of nature。 Anthropology； which deals with the animal anthropos； now comes into line with zoology； and brings it into relation with history。 （It is to be observed that history is （not only different in scope but） not coextensive with anthropology IN TIME。 For it deals only with the development of man in societies； whereas anthropology includes in its definition the proto…anthropic period when anthropos was still non…social； whether he lived in herds like the chimpanzee； or alone like the male ourang…outang。 （It has been well shown by Majewski that congregations herds； flocks； packs； etc。of animals are not SOCIETIES； the characteristic of a society is differentiation of function。 Bee hives； ant hills； may be called quasi…societies； but in their case the classes which perform distinct functions are morphologically different。） Man's condition at the present day is the result of a series of transformations； going back to the most primitive phase of society； which is the ideal （unattainable） beginning of history。 But that beginning had emerged without any breach of continuity from a development which carries us back to a quadrimane ancestor； still further back （according to Darwin's conjecture） to a marine animal of the ascidian type； and then through remoter periods to the lowest form of organism。 It is essential in this theory that though links have been lost there was no break in the gradual development； and this conception of a continuous progress in the evolution of life； resulting in the appearance of uncivilised Anthropos； helped to reinforce； and increase a belief in； the conception of the history of civilised Anthropos as itself also a continuous progressive development。
13。 Thus the diffusion of the Darwinian theory of the origin of man； by emphasising the idea of continuity and breaking down the barriers between the human and animal kingdoms； has had an important effect in establishing the position of history among the sciences which deal with telluric development。 The perspective of history is merged in a larger perspective of development。 As one of the objects of biology is to find the exact steps in the genealogy of man from the lowest organic form； so the scope of history is to determine the stages in the unique causal series from the most rudimentary to the present state of human civilisation。
It is to be observed that the interest in historical research implied by this conception need not be that of Comte。 In the Positive Philosophy history is part of sociology； the interest in it is to discover the sociological laws。 In the view of which I have just spoken； history is permitted to be an end in itself； the reconstruction of the genetic process is an independent interest。 For the purpose of the reconstruction； sociology； as well as physical geography； biology； psychology； is necessary； the sociologist and the historian play into each other's hands； but the object of the former is to establish generalisations； the aim of the latter is to trace in detail a singular causal sequence。
14。 The success of the evolutional theory helped to discredit the assumption or at least the invocation of transcendent causes。 Philosophically of course it is compatible with theism； but historians have for the most part desisted from invoking the naive conception of a 〃god in history〃 to explain historical movements。 A historian may be a theist； but； so far as his work is concerned； this particular belief is otiose。 Otherwise indeed （as was remarked above） history could not be a science； for with a deus ex machina who can be brought on the stage to solve difficulties scientific treatment is a farce。 The transcendent element had appeared in a more subtle form through the influence of German philosophy。 I noticed how Ranke is prone to refer to ideas as if they were transcendent existences manifesting themselves in the successive movements of history。 It is intelligible to speak of certain ideas as controlling； in a given period；for instance； the idea of nationality； but from the scientific point of view； such ideas have no existence outside the minds of individuals and are purely psychical forces； and a historical 〃idea；〃 if it does not exist in this form； is merely a way of expressing a synthesis of the historian himself。
15。 From the more general influence of Darwinism on the place of history in the system of human knowledge； we may turn to the influence of the principles and methods by which Darwin explained development。 It had been recognised even by ancient writers （such as Aristotle and Polybius） that physical circumstances （geography； climate） were factors conditioning the character and history of a race or society。 In the sixteenth century Bodin emphasised these factors； and many subsequent writers took them into account。 The investigations of Darwin； which brought them into the foreground； naturally promoted attempts to discover in them the chief key to the growth of civilisation。 Comte had expressly denounced the notion that the biological methods of Lamarck could be applied to social man。 Buckle had taken account of natural influences； but had relegated them to a secondary plane； compared with psychological factors。 But the Darwinian theory made it tempting to explain the development of civilisation in terms of 〃adaptation to environment；〃 〃struggle for existence；〃 〃natural selection；〃 〃survival of the fittest；〃 etc。 （Recently O。 Seeck has applied these principles to the decline of Graeco…Roman civilisation in his 〃Untergang der antiken Welt〃； 2 volumes； Berlin； 1895； 1901。）
The operation of these principles cannot be denied。 Man is still an animal； subject to zoological as well as mechanical laws。 The dark influence of heredity continues to be effective； and psychical development had begun in lower organic forms；perhaps with life itself。 The organic and the social struggles for existence are manifestations of the same principle。 Environment and climatic influence must be called in to explain not only the differentiation of the great racial sections of humanity； but also the varieties within these sub…species and； it may be； the assimilation of distinct varieties。 Ritter's 〃Anthropogeography〃 has opened a useful line of research。 But on the other hand； it is urged that； in explaining the course of history； these principles do not take us very far； and that it is chiefly for the primitive ultra…prehistoric period that they can account for human development。 It may be said that； so far as concerns the actions and movements of men which are the subject of recorded history； physical environment has ceased to act mechanically； and in order to affect their actions must affect their wills first； and that this psychical character of the causal relations substantially alters the problem。 The development of human societies； it may be argued； derives a completely new character from the dominance of the conscious psychical element； creating as it does new conditions （inventions； social institutions； etc。） which limit and counteract the operation of natural selection； and control and modify the influence of physical environment。 Most thinkers agree now that the chief clews to the growth of civilisation must be sought in the psychological sphere。 Imitation； for instance； is a principle which is probably more significant for the explanation of human development than natural selection。 Darwin himself was conscious that his principles had only a very restricted application in this sphere； as is evident from his cautious and tentative remarks in the 5th chapter of his 〃Descent of Man〃。 He applied natural selection to the growth of the intellectual faculties and of the fundamental social instincts； and also to the differentiation of the great races or 〃sub…species〃 （Caucasian； African； etc。） which differ in anthropological character。 （Darwinian formulae may be suggestive by way of analogy。 For instance； it is characteristic of social advance that a multitude of inventions； schemes and plans are framed which are never carried out； similar to； or designed for the same end as； an invention or plan which is actually adopted because it has chanced to suit better the particular conditions of the hour （just as the works accomplished by an individual statesman； artist or savant are usually only a residue of the numerous projects c