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students to see if they agree with this somewhat radical notion。 While it is true that historically；
political regimes have sometimes labeled their opponents as being mentally ill as an excuse to
imprison them； there is little evidence that all people with mental illness are just being labeled for
being a threat to the social order。 What evidence is there that mental illness is more than just a
method of labeling those whose behaviors makes us unfortable？
What Is a Nervous Breakdown？
When discussing mental illness； many students will mention knowing someone who has had a
“nervous breakdown；” and will ask what it is。 You might discuss the fact that the term 〃nervous
breakdown〃 is not a valid clinical term； technically； there is no such thing； However； it has been
informally used by the general public to describe a variety of mental health problems。 Sometimes
it has been used to describe an individual who has experienced a psychotic episode。 Other times
it has been used to describe an individual who has had a major depressive episode。 You might
discuss with students the types of symptoms shown by someone they have heard has suffered a
nervous breakdown。 Perhaps they can find a more clinically accurate diagnosis of what the
person has actually experienced。
TIMELINE
Year Event
1793 Philippe Pinel was appointed head of the Asylum of Bicetre； France。 He
immediately sought to improve living conditions and treatment of patients。
1796 William Turk opened the York Retreat in England； a country asylum without
bars or manacles。
1824 Eli Todd founded the Hartford Retreat in the U。S。； an institution that sought
to provide proper medical； as well as psychological； treatment for patients。
1841 Dorothea Dix began her campaign for proper care and housing of the
mentally ill。
1859 Charles Darwin published On the Origin of the Species by a Means of Natural
Selection。
1896 Sigmund Freud eschewed use of hypnosis as a therapeutic tool。
1900 Sigmund Freud wrote what many considered to be his best book； The
Interpretation of Dreams。
1908 Clifford Beers； a former mental patient； founded the National mittee for
Mental Hygiene in Connecticut。 Among the mittee’s charter members
was William James。 The mittee later became known as the National
Association for Mental Health。
1911 Eugene Bleuler coined the term “schizophrenia。”
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
19141918
World War I was fought。
1929 The Great Depression began in America。
1935 Portuguese psychiatrist Egas Moniz performed the first lobotomy。
1940s David Shakow was influential in establishing clinical training programs in
American universities。
1940s Electroconvulsive shock therapy （ECT） gained popularity as a therapeutic
tool。
19391945
World War II was fought。
1942 Carl Rogers published Counseling and Psychotherapy； introducing the client…
centered approach to therapy。
1950s Both psychosurgery and drug therapy were introduced in the U。S。 Problems
with psychosurgery were eventually realized； and drug therapy proved
highly successful in controlling many types of psychological disorders。
1952 The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association was
published。
1952 Hans Eysenck attacked the value of psychotherapy as a means of improving
mental health。
19501953
The Korean War was fought。
1958 Joseph Wolpe developed a therapeutic technique known as systematic
desensitization。
1961 Thomas Szasz published The Myth of Mental Illness； suggesting that
psychological disorders have been conceptualized incorrectly。
1963 President John F。 Kennedy was assassinated。
1967 Neal Miller and colleagues performed experimental research leading to the
development of biofeedback。
1977 Albert Bandura published Social Learning Theory； suggesting modeling as a
therapeutic tool
1984 Researchers linked the neurotransmitter dopamine to schizophrenia。
1987 DSM…III…R was published。
1994 DSM…IV was published。
2000 DSM…IV…TR was published。
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CHAPTER 15： PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
American Psychiatric Association。 （1994）。 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American
Psychiatric Association； 4th Ed。 Washington； DC： American Psychiatric Association。 Although
not totally turning the diagnostic system on its ear； there are sufficient changes to warrant
reading this latest edition…how else would one know that “multiple personality disorder” is
now “dissociative identity disorder”？
Bayh； B。 （1983）。 Myths and Realities： A Report of the National mission on the Insanity Defense。
Arlington； VA： National Mental Health Association。 This mission was established by the
National Mental Health Association； a consumer advocacy organization； in order to make
remendations regarding the insanity plea。 Their report is available for purchase from
1800 N。 Kent Street； Arlington； VA 22209。 Definitely worth reading。
Beck； A。 （1997）。 The Past and Future of Cognitive Therapy。 Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and
Research； 6（4）； 276…284。 Beck describes the development of cognitive…behavioral therapy from
its earliest beginnings to its most recent manifestations。
Beck； A。 T。 （1985）。 Anxiety Disorders and Phobias。 New York： Basic Books。 This book explains
anxiety disorders and phobias as disturbances in cognition that cause disturbances in feeling
and behavior。
Ellis； A。 （1997）。 The Practice of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy； 2nd Ed。 New York： Springer
Publishing。 A plete update of Ellis’ earlier work。 Contains many new references and new
research。
Goffman； E。 （1963）。 Stigma： Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity。 Though an older
publication； Goffman’s insights into the daily problems of individuals “stigmatized” by the
vagaries of fate or society are excellent； well worth reading。
Maxmen； J。 S。； & Ward； N。 G。 （I 995）。 Essential Psychopathology and Its Treatment； 2nd Ed。 New
York： W。 W。 Norton & Co。 May be considered as a “panion” volume to DSM…IV； in that it
explains DSM…IV； presents its diagnostic categories and illuminates them； as well as
providing treatment guidelines and case vignettes。
Robinson； D。 （1996）。 Wild Beasts & Idle Humours： The Insanity Defense from Antiquity to the Present。
Cambridge； Harvard University Press。 Documents the uses and abuses of the insanity
defense from antiquity to the present。
Rosenhan； D。 I。 （1973）。 On Being Sane in Insane Places。 Science； 179； 250…258。 This article details
Rosenhan’s classic study of the danger of labeling people as “mentally ill；” and mental health
professionals’ over reliance on stereotypic symptoms。
Rosenhan； D。； & Seligman； M。 （1995）。 Abnormal Psychology； 3rd Ed。 New York： W。 W。 Norton。 The
definitions； history； and major schools of thought and treatment of abnormality are presented
first。 Then； each of the major disorders—their description； their causes； and their
treatments—is laid out in light of the peting schools of thought。 An excellent
introductory text。
Seligman； M。 （1995）。 The Effectiveness of Psychotherapy： The Consumer Reports Study。 American
Psychologist； 50（12）； 965…974。 Reports on a large…scale survey that suggests that psychotherapy
produces significant positive change。
Spitzer； R。 L。； Skodoe； A。 E。； Gibbon； M。； & Williams； J。 B。 W。 （1981）。 DSM…III Casebook： A Learning
panion to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Of Mental Disorders； 3rd Ed Washington； D
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
C： American Psychological Association。 Contains a series of descriptive vignettes； based on
actual patients； followed by a rationale for the diagnostic category used for that person。 This
book is a treasure of good examples for lecture。
Szasz； T。 （1974）。 The Myth of Mental Illness： Foundations of a Theory of Personal Conduct； （Rev Ed）。
New York： Harper & Row。 Posits that what is termed “mental illness” is； in fact； behavior
disapproved of by the speaker…a stigmatizing moral judgment； not a medical diagnosis。 A
classic text that articulates a fascinating alternative to the dominant view of mental illness。
DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY
PROGRAM 21： PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
Overview
The major types of mental illness； including schizophrenia； anxiety； and affective and bipolar
disorders； and the major factors that influence them； both biological and psychological。
Key Issues
Mistreatment of mentally ill patients in psychiatric hospitals； biological versus psychological
study of schizophrenia； the role of genetics in mental disorders； genetic study of
schizophrenic and healthy twins； SPECT analysis； and cultural factors in psychopathology。
Interviews
David Rosenhan details his dehumanizing treatment at a psychiatric hospital after he was
admitted as a patient during an experiment on the perception of mental illness。
Fuller Torrey pares schizophrenia to other biological diseases。
Psychologist Hans Strupp examines the role of early childhood behavior in the development
of schizophrenia。
Irving Gottesman and Torrey Fuller examine the biological and genetic basis of
schizophrenia though NM and SPECT analysis。