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（a） Symptoms are rooted in unconscious conflict；
much of which derives from conflict between id
and superego
（b） Defense mechanisms （repression； denial） can be
effected to avoid pain resulting from conflicting
motives and anxieties
（ii） Behavioral theorists posit abnormal behaviors as
being acquired in the same manner as normal
behaviors…through learning and reinforcement
（a） Focus is on current behavior and current
conditions that may be reinforcing the behavior
（b） Both classical and operant conditioning models
are used to understand the processes that can
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result in maladaptive behavior
（iii） Cognitive perspectives may be used to supplement
behavioristic views
（a） How the individual perceives and thinks about
him… or herself； and his/her relations with others
in the environment are important issues
（b） This approach suggests problems are the result of
distortions in perceptions of the reality of a
situation
（iv） The sociocultural perspective emphasizes the role
culture plays in both the diagnosis and etiology of
abnormal behavior
c） Most recently； the interactionist perspective is being
increasingly popular； and is viewed as a product of the
plex interactions between a number of biological and
psychological factors
II。Classifying Psychological Disorders
A。 Psychological Diagnosis： The label given to an abnormality by classifying and
categorizing the observed behavior pattern into an approved diagnostic system
B。 Goals of Classification
1。 A useful diagnostic system provides the following three benefits：
a） mon shorthand language： A mon set of agreed…upon
meanings； given that it is imperative that researchers
studying different aspects of psychopathology； or evaluating
treatment programs； can agree on the disorder they are
observing
b） Understanding etiology： Under ideal circumstances； a
diagnosis of a specific disorder should make clear the
cause（s） of the symptoms； this is not always possible with
psychological disorders
c） Treatment plan： Diagnosis should suggest types of treatment
to consider for particular disorders
C。 DSM…IV…TR
1。 The 4th revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders （DSM） classifies； defines； and describes more than 200
mental disorders
2。 DSM…IV…TR emphasizes the description of patterns of symptoms and
courses of disorders； rather than etiological theories or treatment
strategies
3。 DSM…IV…TR uses dimensions or axes that portray information about
the psychological； social； and physical factors that may be associated
with a psychological disorder
4。 Current DSM…IV…TR categories or axes are：
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a） Axis I： Clinical Disorders
（i） These disorders present symptoms of patterns of
behavioral or psychological problems that typically
are painful or impair an area of functioning。
Included are disorders that emerge in infancy；
childhood； or adolescence
b） Axis II。 Personality Disorders & Mental Retardation
（ii） Details mental retardation and personality
disorders； i。e。； dysfunctional patterns of perceiving
and responding to the world
c） Axis III。 General Medical Conditions
（iii） Codes physical problems that are relevant to
understanding or treating an individual’s
psychological disorders； as detailed on Axes I and II
d） Axis IV。 Psychosocial and Environmental Problems
（iv） Codes psychosocial and environmental stressors
that may impact diagnosis and treatment of an
individual’s disorder and his or her likelihood of
recovery
e） Axis V： Global Assessment of Functioning
（v） Codes the individual’s overall level of current
functioning in the psychological； social； and
occupational domains
5。 Full diagnosis； in accordance with the DSM system； involves
consideration of each axis
6。 Methods used to organize and present categories have shifted with
each revision of the DSM。 DSM…III…R felt neurotic disorders and
psychotic disorders had bee too generalized in meaning to
remain useful as diagnostic categories。
7。 In addition to the diagnoses on the five traditional axes； DSM…IV…TR
provides an appendix that describes about 25 culture…bound
syndromes–recurrent； locality…specific patterns of aberrant behavior
and troubling experience that may or may not be likened to a
particular DSM…IV…TR diagnostic category。 Such syndromes include：
a） Boufée delirante： A sudden outburst of agitated and
aggressive behavior； marked confusion； and psychomotor
excitement （West Africa and Haiti）
b） Koro： An episode of sudden and intense anxiety that the
penis will recede into the body and possibly cause death
（South and East Asia）
c） Taijin kyofusho： An individual’s intense fear that his or her
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body； its parts or its functions； displease； embarrass； or are
offensive to other people （Japan）
III。 Major Types of Psychological Disorders
A。 Important Disorders not Covered in Psychology and Life。
1。 Substance…use disorders include both dependence on and abuse of
alcohol and drugs
2。 Somatoform disorders involve physical symptoms that arise without a
physical cause
3。 Sexual disorders involve problems with sexual inhibition or
dysfunction； and deviant sexual practices
4。 Disorders usually first diagnosed in infancy； childhood； or adolescence
include mental retardation； munication disorders （such as
stuttering）； and autism
5。 Eating disorders； such as anorexia and bulimia。
6。 Some individuals experience more than one disorder at some point
in their life span； this is known as orbidity； the co…occurrence of
diseases
B。 Anxiety Disorders： Types
1。 Involve the experiencing of fear or anxiety in certain life situations
when that anxiety is problematic enough to interfere with the ability
to function or to enjoy life
2。 Generalized Anxiety Disorder： manifests itself as feeling anxious or
worried most of the time； when not faced with any specific danger。
Presenting symptoms must include at least three of the following：
a） Muscle tension
b） Fatigue
c） Restlessness
d） Poor concentration
e） Irritability
f） Sleep difficulties
3。 Panic Disorder manifests in unexpected； severe panic attacks that
begin with a feeling of intense apprehension； fear； or terror。 Attacks
are unexpected； in the sense that they are not evoked by something
concrete in the situation。 One manifestation of panic disorder is
agoraphobia； an extreme fear of being in public places or open spaces
from which escape may be difficult or embarrassing。
4。 Phobias are diagnosed when the individual suffers from a persistent
and irrational fear of a specific object； activity； or situation； when
that fear is excessive and unreasonable； given the reality of the
threat。 Phobias interfere with adjustment； cause significant distress；
and inhibit necessary action toward goals。 DSM…IV…TR defines two
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categories of phobias。
a） Social phobia is a persistent； irrational fear； arising in
anticipation of a public situation in which an individual can
be observed by others
b） Specific phobias occur in response to several different types of
objects or situations
5。 Obsessive…pulsive Disorder is an anxiety disorder in which the
individual bees locked into specific patterns of thought and
behavior。 It may best be defined in terms of its ponent parts
a） Obsessions are thoughts； images； or impulses that recur or
persist despite the individual’s efforts to suppress them。
They are experienced as an unwanted invasion of
consciousness； seem to be senseless or repugnant； and are
unacceptable to the individual experiencing them。
b） pulsions are repetitive； purposeful acts performed
according to certain rules； in a ritualized manner； and in
response to an obsession。 The behavior is performed to
reduce or prevent the disfort associated with some
dreaded situation； but it is either unreasonable or clearly
excessive。
6。 Posttraumatic stress disorder （PTSD）； an anxiety disorder； is
characterized by the persistent reexperiencing of traumatic events
through distressing recollections； dreams； hallucinations； or
flashbacks
C。 Anxiety Disorders： Causes
1。 Biological： This view posits a predisposition to fear whatever is
related to sources of serious danger in the evolutionary past； thus the
preparedness hypothesis suggests that we carry an evolutionary
tendency to respond quickly and “thoughtlessly” to once…feared
stimuli。 Some evidence is available linking this disorder to
abnormalities in the basal ganglia and frontal lobe of the brain。
2。 Psychodynamic： This model begins with the assumption that
symptoms of anxiety disorders derive from underlying psychic
conflicts or fears； with the symptoms being attempts to protect the
individual from psychological pain
3。 Behavioral explanations of anxiety focus on the way symptoms of
anxiety disorders are reinforced or conditioned
4。 Cognitive perspectives concentrate on the perceptual processes or
attitudes that may dist