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contributions within the psychoanalytic field would represent this phase。
Phase 3： Women as Inherently Different and Deviant。 Viewing men as the norm and women
as special exceptions occurs in Phase 3。 Freud’s view of mature female sexuality is used to
illustrate the point。 Although aware of the sexual role of the clitoris； Freud insisted that mature
sexuality is located in the vagina。 Regarding research； Torrey notes that when differences did
appear； psychologists have usually interpreted them as showing female inferiority。 Witkin； for
example； described the holistic style of perception he found in his female participants as a
liability to thinking analytically； rather than as a capacity for global synthesis （Torrey； 1987； p。
157）。
Phase 4： Taking the Psychology of Women Seriously。 This phase involves the feminist study
of women； their development and social rules。 Gilligan’s challenge to Kohlberg’s theory
represents this stage； as does Homer’s extension of achievement motivation （McClelland）。
Phase 5： All the Human Experience； Psychology Redefined。 A paradigmatic shift would be
necessary within psychology to describe the human experience as a discipline。 Until extensive
work concerning women is acplished； it will be difficult to envision the changes within the
field。 Do different theories represent different phases？ Are men and women really so different？
If so； what are the social； political； and economic implications of personality differences？ Since
women are being the majority in the field of psychology； what impact do you think this will
have on the psychology of the 21st century？
278
CHAPTER 14： UNDERSTANDING HUMAN PERSONALITY
BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILE
Gordon Willard Allport （1897–1967）
As a student； Gordon Allport was deeply influenced by the writings of William James； whom he
resembles in his style of investigation and his unpromising interest in the individual as self。
Allport was born in Montezuma； Indiana； in 1897； one of four children。 His father； a physician； ran
his clinic in the Allport home。 He indulged his strong belief in the imposition of discipline and
responsibility at an early age by assigning each of his sons a task to carry out in the clinic。 Mrs。
Allport； a former schoolteacher； introduced the children to philosophy； providing them with the
foundations of the classics and encouraging their independent inquiry into the nature of things。
She was a religious woman and stressed the importance of faith。 Allport himself has described his
upbringing as one of “plain Protestant piety and hard work。”
On pletion of high school； Allport followed his brother Floyd to Harvard。 His education was
interrupted briefly when he served a short time in the armed forces during World War I。 He
eventually earned his B。A。 in 1919。 Gordon did not immediately pursue a graduate degree；
choosing instead to teach in Istanbul； Turkey； but returned to Harvard a year later to earn his
doctorate in psychology at the age of 24。 He did not remain in the United States for long； again
feeling the need to travel and study abroad。 This time Allport spent two years at large universities
in England and Germany。 When he returned； he secured a permanent academic position at
Harvard。
Allport’s most significant book； Personality： A Psychological Interpretation； was published in 1937
and enjoyed a great reception。 （The book was thoroughly revised 24 years later under the title
Pattern and Growth in Personality。） His approach to understanding human personality as a growing；
changing system of traits； attitudes； and habits became well known。 Allport is responsible for
emphasizing the importance of both the concept of attitudes in social psychology and the concept
of personality traits。
From 1939 to 1949； he was the Harvard University editor of the Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology and was elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1939。 He cofounded
the Department of Social Relations at Harvard in 1946 and； thereafter； was closely
identified with the “third force” in psychology； the humanistic psychologists。 Allport received the
Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award in 1964 and continued to pursue his research and
writing until his death in 1967。
Hans Jargon Eysenck （b。 1916）
Hans Eysenck； the grandson of a medical doctor and an only child； was born in Berlin； Germany。 In
order to gain admission to the University of Berlin； Eysenck was required to join the Nazi party as a
member of the SS。 He tolerated these circumstances for only a short time； leaving eventually for
France and； finally； England。 Eysenck studied psychology at the University of London； obtaining
his Ph。D。 in 1940。 He became director of the psychology department at Maudsley Hospital in
London after World War II； and has traveled often to the United States as a visiting professor。
Eysenck’s contributions to psychology have been varied。 He is regarded most for his empirical and
theoretical work on personality and his contributions to behavior therapy。 He is particularly well
known for his personality test battery； the Eysenck Personality Inventory； and for his critical review；
in 1952； of the value and effectiveness of psychotherapy； especially psychoanalysis； in the
treatment of psychological disorders。 Eysenck founded the journal Behavior Research and Therapy in
1962； and is the author of more than 350 books and articles； including the Biological Basis of
Personality （1964） and Personality； Structure and Measurement （1969）。
279
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
Sigmund Freud （1856–1939）
Sigmund Freud was born in Pribor； Czechoslovakia； in 1856。 Although Freud was a gifted student；
it took him eight years to finish his medical degree at the University of Vienna； partly because he
was interested in so many topics。 Freud first pursued a career as a neurologist； but financial
concerns forced him into general medical practice。 In cooperation with his friend Joseph Breuer；
Freud began to treat hysterical women。 This is unusual； because at the time there was no known
cure for hysteria； which is now known as a conversion disorder。 Through trial and error and
feedback from clients； Breuer and Freud developed the technique known as psychoanalysis。
The fundamental rule of psychoanalysis is honesty； clients must relay all thoughts and feelings
uncensored to the analyst。 Clients then follow their stream of thought wherever it may lead； a
process known as free association。 In the course of free association； clients often uncover traumatic
events in the past； and； upon reliving these events； often experience relief from their symptoms。
Freud’s first major work； The Interpretation of Dreams （1900）； detailed the process of dream
interpretation； which he felt was the “royal road to the unconscious。” Although it took six years to
sell the first 600 copies printed； this work would go through eight additional printings during
Freud’s lifetime。
Although the technique of psychoanalysis is perhaps Freud’s most important legacy； he made
many other substantial contributions to psychology。 These include the recognition of the
importance of sexuality and unconscious processes； a fully developed system of personality； and
an appreciation for the conflict between individual desires and the constraints of society。 His work
has influenced so many aspects of our thinking that he is often not given full credit for the
development of his ideas。 Freud’s many detractors are quick to point out that his theories are not
based on empirical research。 While this is certainly true； just because they lack empirical evidence
does not mean that they are wrong。 It just means that they are less likely to be right。 Because of the
breadth of his intellectual contributions； he remains the most cited psychologist in Psychology and
Life and most parable texts。
Carl Gustav Jung （1875–1961）
Carl Jung was born in Kesswil； Switzerland； the son of a pastor。 From childhood； Jung was
fascinated by the problems of religion and spiritualism。 He received his M。D。 from the University of
Basel in 1901； with an emphasis in psychiatry。 Having read Freud’s The Interpretation of Dreams； he
sought the master out and soon became Freud’s most famous disciple。 An eventual split between
Freud and Jung occurred； prompted by Jung’s belief that the psychosexual theory of development
was too restrictive。
Jung advanced his own brand of psychology； known as analytic psychology； introducing the
concepts of the collective unconscious and archetypes。 Like Freud； Jung developed a large
following of loyal adherents。 In his later writings； Jung returned often to an analysis of religion and
mysticism； addressing themes that had fascinated him from his youth。
Neal Miller （b。 1909）
Neal Miller has been in the vanguard of American psychology for more than 30 years。 He sees
himself as a “builder of bridges between disciplines” and； indeed； his contributions run the gamut
from social…learning theory and frustration…aggression hypotheses； to physiological research into
br