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other functions； prepares an organism for fight or flight by increasing heart rate； blood pressure； and other
bodily functions。 Cannon argued that control of emotion was based in the thalamus； which receives
information from various senses and that emotional response patterns were activated by the thalamus
when external sensory information was received； via activation of the sympathetic nervous system。 He felt
emotion occurred at the same time as activation of the body。 His model looks like this：
PERCEPTION T BODILY CHANGES & EMOTION T BEHAVIOR
As an example of how this might look in real life； imagine meeting an angry bear in the woods：
SNARLING BEAR T INCREASE HEART RATE & FEAR T FIGHT OR FLIGHT！
The Schachter—Singer Theory
The Cognitive–Physiological Theory of Emotion； proposed by Schachter and Singer； suggests that emotional
experience involves both cognitive attributions and physiological arousal。 This theory assumes that both
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CHAPTER 13： EMOTION； STRESS； AND HEALTH
physiological arousal and a cognitive label are necessary for the full experience of emotion。 If either
ponent is missing； the subjective state experienced would be inplete。 In some ways； this model
bines and modifies the James–Lange and Cannon–Bard theories。 Like James and Lange； this theory
proposed that bodily changes are a part of the emotional experience； and； like Cannon and Bard； it posits
that interpretation of the event is important for full experience。 However； this model goes beyond previous
theories in the position that both physiological and cognitive labeling are required for the full experience of
emotion。 This theory has been quite popular since its introduction in 1963。 Support for the theory； however；
has been modest； it has been criticized on both methodological and empirical grounds。 Attempts to replicate
Schachter’s work have been unsuccessful。 In diagram form； this theory would look like this：
PERCEPTION T BODILY CHANGES & T EMOTION T BEHAVIOR
COGNITIVE LABEL
As an example of how this might look in real life； imagine meeting an angry bear in the woods：
SNARLING BEAR T INCREASED HEART RATE； T FEAR！ T FIGHT OR FLIGHT！
ETC。 & COGNITIVE APPRAISAL
Since this model first appeared； some psychologists have suggested that the cognitive ponent alone may
be both a necessary and sufficient ponent for the generation of emotion。
The Survival Value of Emotions
Plutchik； a psychologist who has done a great deal of research on emotion； says； “The organic tradition
reminds people of their biological connection to each other； and the survival value of emotions such as guilt；
shame； pity； remorse； gratitude； and empathy。” One could claim the emotions have survival value because
they have survived in the evolutionary process。 However； social； political； and economic changes among
humans occur much more rapidly than evolutionary changes； and characteristics that were once adaptive
may cease to be adaptive as the environment changes。
The emotions that Plutchik mentions are related to altruism and cooperation。 An individual with these
emotions may be at a disadvantage in petition with an individual who does not have these emotions
and is selfish and without conscience； as ordinary people are often the victims of people with antisocial
personalities。 However； if all the members of a group or species were lacking in altruistic emotions； they
would find it difficult to form a cooperative society and might destroy each other。
Stress： Causes and Coping
Stress refers to the reaction of an individual to disturbing events in their environment。 Our reaction to stress
is fundamentally physiological； with any or all of the following manifestations：
· A heightened state of awareness
· A dry mouth
· Increased heart rate
· Shaky hands
· Increased perspiration
One thing that makes stress difficult to define； explain； diagnose； and treat is that stress is a subjective state。
What stresses you may not stress other people。 Negative or unpleasant events are more likely to be
perceived as stressful than positive events； although positive events such as childbirth can also be stressful。
Negative events cause more psychological distress and produce more physiological symptoms than do
positive events。 Uncontrollable or unpredictable events are more stressful than those that are controllable or
predictable。 Unpredictable events may be more stressful； because there is no opportunity to prepare for
coping with them。 Ambiguous events are more stressful than are clear…cut events； whether the events are
good or bad。 Ambiguous events can leave you stuck in a problem…solving stage in which you attempt to
understand what caused the event and its meaning。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
Stress is a potential causal factor in illness； in that it can open the door for both physical and psychological
problems。 Some of the earlier work in this area looked at the role played in illness by Major Stressful Life
Events （MSLE）。 This research showed the impact of MSLEs using a questionnaire entitled the Social
Readjustment Rating Scale （SRRS）。 Each item on the scale has been given a certain number of points； with
higher numbers corresponding to more stressful events。 Once a respondent has pleted the scale； the
points for each item are totaled。 The higher the score on the scale； the higher the stress level。
In addition to large stressful events； psychologists have recently e to believe that daily hassles may have
a larger detrimental impact on us than previously thought。 Research suggests that these chronic stressors
are more predictive of physical and psychological illness than are the more acute stressors found on the
SRRS。
COPING WITH STRESSFUL EVENTS
According to Lazarus； coping is the process of attempting to manage demands that are viewed as taxing or
exceeding one’s resources。 It is the process of trying to manage and master stressful events。 Researchers
distinguish between two types of coping that can occur simultaneously：
。 Problem…Solving Efforts； which are attempts to do something constructive to change the stressful
circumstances
。 Emotion…Focused coping； which involves efforts to regulate the emotional reactions to stressful events。
What constitutes successful coping？ Researchers in this area differ in the criteria by which they measure
successful coping。 However； we can say that coping efforts are deemed successful if they：
。 Reduce physiological arousal and its indicators such as heart rate
。 Permit a quick return to previous life patterns
。 Reduce psychological distress； such as anxiety and depression
COPING STYLES
Coping style is an internal coping resource； consisting of a general tendency for a person to deal with a
stressful event in a particular way。 Examples of coping styles include：
Avoidance versus Confrontation
Some people meet events head…on； tackling problems directly。 Others attempt to minimize the
significance or withdraw from such events； often through alcohol and drugs。 Avoiders may not be able
to deal with the possibility of future threats and may fail in their attempts at making efforts to anticipate
and manage subsequent problems。 On the other hand； confronters may deal effectively with long…term
threats； although in the short…run they may be more anxious as they deal directly with the stressor。
Type A Behavior
There are coping styles that successfully deal with stress； but that also have an adverse impact on
health。 One of them； Type A Behavior； has been associated with heart disease for several years。 The
Type A individual was first identified in 1978 and is characterized by aggression； petition；
achievement； time urgency； and hostility。 Type A individuals lead fast…track lives。 Many of your
students are probably junior Type A’s。 They work long hours； are impatient with what they perceive as
slow behavior in others； and often finish other people’s sentences for them。 The Type A behavior
syndrome is important because it has been reliably related to the development of coronary artery
disease； as a function of excessive physiological arousal in response to stressful events。 Recently；
researchers have identified the hostility ponent of Type A behavior as more damaging than time
urgency or petitiveness to the circulatory system。
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SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR STRESS
Socially supportive relationships may mitigate the effects of stress by helping people cope with and resolve
problems。 Social relationships promote health。 Social support is an interpersonal exchange in which one
person gives help to another。 It may be provided in numerous ways； including：
。 Emotional concern； as expressed through liking； love； sympathy； and empathy
。 Instrumental aid through the provision of goods or services during someone’s time of need
。 Providing information about a stressful situation； perhaps a similar one experienced by them
。 Reassurance by others that you are acting in a reasonable； responsible manner
We have a great deal of data to indicate that social