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lower is that the tests are written in a “foreign” language。 The test instructions and questions；
written in “standard” English and testing “standard” concepts； may not make sense to children
who use a different （but not inferior） language to deal with “nonstandard” concepts。
To illustrate the gap between standard English and “black” English； sociologist Adrian Dove
developed the Dove Counterbalance General Intelligence Test （1968）； a set of 30 multiple…choice
questions。 This test； also known as the “chitling test；” uses “Black English” to test knowledge of
black cultural concepts。 For example； could you respond to the following？
Questions：
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CHAPTER 10： INTELLIGENCE AND INTELLIGENCE ASSESSMENT
。 What is a “blood”？
。 “Bird or yardbird” was the jacket jazz lovers from coast to coast hung on _____？
。 Do you know the difference between a “gray” and a “spook”？
Answers：
。 A “blood” refers to someone of African American descent。
。 Charlie Parker； who spent time in prison； was nicknamed “Bird。”
。 “Grays” are pale…faced whites and “spooks” are African Americans。
Based on just this minimal information； it would seem that American “whites” and American
“blacks” are people separated by a mon language！ Psychologist Robert L。 Williams feels that
the differences in language can be much subtler than the Black English used on test items on the
chitling test。 He and L。 Wendell Rivers designed a study to measure the actual effect of this
language gap on IQ scores （1972）。 They enlisted the aid of African American teachers and graduate
students to translate the instructions of an IQ test into nonstandard English。 The test they used was
the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts （BTBC）； an IQ test that asks children to mark the picture that
matches a concept of time； space； or quantity。 Their participants were 890 African American
children attending either kindergarten or first or second grade。 The children were divided into two
groups； and the psychologists controlled for the variables of the scores received on other IQ tests；
age； sex； and grade level。 One half was given the standard version of the Boehm and one half was
given the nonstandard version。 Results were stated as follows。
“The children who took the nonstandard version scored significantly higher than those who
took the test with the standard instructions。 What is surprising is that the nonstandard
instructions seem to differ little from the standard version。 For example； the instructions on the
standard version read “behind the sofa；” while the nonstandard version asked the child to
mark a picture of something that was “in back of the couch。”
The Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity （the BITCH test） was Williams’ next
experiment in designing a culture…specific test for African Americans。 Williams administered 100
vocabulary items； selected from a slang dictionary and his personal experiences； to a group of 200
sixteen… to eighteen…year…old participants； half of whom were African American and half of whom
were white。 On this IQ test； the whites got lower scores； an average score of 51； pared to an
average of 87 for the African Americans。
As Williams demonstrated； psychologists can develop a test that favors a particular group rather
easily。 However； the problem that has confronted the designers of tests is how to design a test that
will apply to all groups fairly。 Moreover； after the test is designed； how do we best use the data it
provides？ Williams （1974） stresses that we must remember that：
。 An IQ is only a score on a test that measures specific skills。
。 An IQ should not be used to label children （as it often is）。
。 Illiteracy； or a different type of literacy； should not be confused with intellectual ability。 An
IQ score should be used to measure an individual’s ability to adapt to and function
effectively in society。
Should IQ tests have color and culture？ Is separate but equal the best alternative when it es to
IQ tests； or should we just be more careful in using IQ scores？ What do you think？ Think carefully；
because you could be the next group to use a “nonstandard” form of language。
173
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
Mental Retardation： The Long Childhood
Concern and care for the developmentally delayed； or retarded； individual is a recent phenomenon。
Throughout most of history； no special attention has been given to the mildly developmentally
delayed or disabled person。 These people lived a life of manual labor and poverty； sometimes
rejected by family and munity。 In ancient and medieval times； the more severely
developmentally disabled were frequently abandoned and left to die of exposure or starvation； or to
be killed by animals。 Into the 16th and 17th centuries； severely disabled children were often thought
to be divine punishment of the parents； or possessed by Satan。
As society became somewhat more humane； institutions for the “feeble…minded” were established；
though the lifestyle of these individuals did not necessarily improve as a result of such institutions。
These individuals lived out their short lives in drab and often punitive surroundings。 Many were
victims of genocide。 Hitler’s goal to purify the Aryan race serves as a chilling exemplar of this issue。
It is estimated that 300；000 developmentally delayed or disabled individuals were killed under
Hitler’s leadership。
Until recent years； developmentally delayed or disabled individuals were classified as morons；
imbeciles； or idiots； depending on the extent of disability。 The genetic disorder we now call Down
syndrome was called Mongolian idiocy。 The genetic disorder known currently as Tay…Sachs
disease was called amaurotic family idiocy。
The situation for the developmentally delayed/disabled individual began improving in the 1960s。
President Kennedy spoke out for these individuals； and was instrumental in making funds
available for research in this area and education for the developmentally delayed or disabled。 The
zeitgeist of the 60s emphasized environmental factors in intelligence and challenged the view that
low intelligence is genetically programmed。
Developmental delay or disability is difficult to define and； at one point in time； the diagnosis was
made entirely based on IQ scores。 Today； the child’s adaptive capacities are also considered in
assessing the intellectual capabilities of the child。 Consideration is given to the fact that the
individual’s self…help skills； socialization； language； and motor skills are significantly less well…
developed than those of normal children of the same age。 There remains a fuzzy boundary； between
the “almost developmentally delayed or disabled” and the “just barely delayed or disabled。” It is
estimated that about 3 percent of children are diagnosed as being developmentally delayed or
disabled。 A diagnosis of developmental delay or disability is not made after age 18。
Mild Mental Retardation。 Mildly developmentally delayed or disabled children have an IQ of
between approximately 50 and 75； and these account for approximately 80 percent of all the
developmentally delayed individuals。 Mildly delayed/disabled children can learn to read and
write and to do simple arithmetic。 They learn slowly and have great difficulty with abstract
concepts。 Their disability is most noticeable in school。 As adults； they hold jobs and live
independently； often overing the stigma of retardation。
Moderate Mental Retardation。 Moderately delayed/disabled children have an IQ between 35 and
55。 About 12 percent of developmentally delayed/disabled children fall into this category； many of
them are Down syndrome children。 Whereas the mildly the delayed/disabled individual is
described； as “educable；” the moderately delayed/disabled child is described as “trainable。” These
children use language and can learn self…help skills； and their training involves teaching of skills
that will enable them to have a degree of independence in the munity。 Many of them learn to tell
time； to count money； and to find their way around in the environment。
Severe Mental Retardation。 Severely delayed/disabled children have an IQ of 20 to 35。 They can
learn some language and self…help skills。 Most of these children are institutionalized。 About 8
percent of people with an IQ below 70 are severely delayed/disabled。
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CHAPTER 10： INTELLIGENCE AND INTELLIGENCE ASSESSMENT
Profound Mental Retardation。 These children have an IQ of less than 20； and require supervision
and nursing care all their lives。 About 1 percent of delayed/disabled children are profoundly
retarded。
It is probably more meaningful to classify the developmentally delayed or disabled individual
according to the cause of their retardation。
Genetic causes。 Down syndrome is the result of a genetic aberration （it is not a hereditary problem）
that results in three chromosomes at the 21st position rather than two。 It is the most mon
genetic cause of retardation； and occurs in approximately one of every 1；000 live births。 The
incidence of this dis