按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
false； or if we cannot prove a proposition false； it must be true。 As an example； think about this
statement： “There has never been any scandal about this candidate for President。 Therefore； he
must be an honest； moral person。” Is that really true？
· “If you don’t pick up your clothes before you go to bed at night； pretty soon you’ll be knee
deep in dirty clothes。”
Is that the way it is？ This is an example of the slippery slope fallacy； certain applications of it have
152
CHAPTER 9： COGNITIVE PROCESSES
been called the domino theory。 The argument is that if the first in a possible series of steps or events
occurs； the other steps or events are inevitable。 Here is an example from a letter to the editor of a
metropolitan newspaper； in which the writer was responding to an article discussing the morality
of euthanasia in the case of a person with advanced multiple sclerosis。 “If we allow this to happen；
where do we stop？ Who would decide at what point someone should die？ Do we give them poison
the moment they know they have multiple sclerosis or cancer； before they have any suffering？”
。 “TV can’t be harmful for children because it occupies their attention for hours and keeps
them off the streets。”
Is this argument against the idea that TV can be harmful for children convincing？ It is an example
of the fallacy called irrelevant reason。 This fallacy occurs when the argument given to support a
proposition has little or no relevance to the original proposition。 Let us look at one more example。
“Conservationists have suggested that we could conserve fuel by increasing the tax on gasoline。
But more taxes； whether they’re paid by the oil panies or passed on to the consumer at the
pump； will not produce one more barrel of oil。”
· “I don’t see how he can get elected。 No one I know is going to vote for him。”
What’s wrong with this argument？ This is the hasty generalization fallacy。 It occurs when an
isolated or exceptional case is used as the basis for making a general conclusion。 In statistical
terms； it is making a conclusion about a population based on information obtained from a sample
that is biased or too small to be representative。 It is an error of inductive reasoning； going from the
particular to the general when it is not justified by the evidence。
。 “If socialized medicine will result in better and lower…cost health care； shouldn’t the same
logic be applied to automobiles？ Wouldn’t nationalization of the auto industry produce
better and lower…cost cars？ And if we nationalize auto mechanics； wouldn’t we get better
and less expensive repairs？”
These words were spoken in rebuttal after Senator Kennedy had called for national health
insurance in a speech at a meeting of the United Auto Workers。 Does the speaker’s argument make
sense？ It represents the questionable…analogy fallacy。 In a questionable analogy； an attempt is made to
make two situations seem more similar than they actually are。 A state senator； using the Crucifixion
as a rationale for capital punishment； gives another example； “Where would Christianity be if Jesus
got 8 to 15 years； with time off for good behavior？”
The underlying issue in the fallacies detailed above is the need for critical thinking on the part of
the listener。 Think about what was said。 This is one of the most important lessons of this course。
Does it make sense； or does it just sound impressive？ What motivation could the speaker or writer
have？ What would the writer or speaker like you to do based on their message？ Fallacies are not
necessarily bad； but they require far greater scrutiny than they generally receive。 Again； think
critically and use your abilities for processing information。
The Structure； Hierarchy； and Criterion of Language
Criterion 1： Phonemes
Phonemes are the perceptual units of which speech events are posed。 These basic sounds are
used to create words。 There are few of them； about 100 altogether； and they form the basis of all
human spoken language。 No single language uses all 100 phonemes。 For instance； English uses
about 40。 We bine these units of sounds to make units of meaning。
153
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
Criterion 2： Morphemes
Morphemes are the smallest units of language that have meaning。 Morphemes consist of what we
recognize as root words； stem words； prefixes； and suffixes。 Words that we recognize as meaningful
are made up of binations of morphemes。 We use rules to bine groupings of morphemes into
coherent sentences。
Criterion 3： Syntax
Syntax is a system of rules that specify how we bine words into phrases and sentences。
Looking back at the basics of spoken language； what inferences might we be able to make about the
controversy of whether the higher primates are capable of speech？ They seem able to meet the first
two criteria of language； the symbolic and generative requisites； but do they follow the structure of
language； according to the rules of syntax？ Not yet； at least so far as we have been able to
determine。
Language and the Human Child
Developmental Milestones
People learn to speak and use language in highly predictable ways。 Certain skills are required for
learning to speak； such as babies crying before coherent vocalization can occur。 Following crying；
babies babble at age 4 to 6 months； begin using phonemes at 7 to 11 months； and usually speak
their first real word at about 1 year of age。 Nouns such as “banana” or “bar” or “mom” get used a
lot at first to indicate the child’s wants。
Between 2 and 2。 years； sentences begin to appear and increase in plexity up to about age 5； at
which time the child has good syntactical capability and can even tell short stories （like the cat
drew the picture on my bedroom wall）。 One interesting aspect of language acquisition is that the
phonemes used during the first year by babies are cross…cultural。 The early sounds of all babies are
the same； regardless of the language spoken around the child or the language（s） he or she will
eventually learn to speak。 Why？ Because the first few sounds are easy to make； there are words and
sounds that are mon in a cross…cultural sense； such as “mama” and “pappa。” However； what
is the process once babies do begin to speak？
Overextensions
When learning to speak formally； children are limited by vocabulary size； so they generalize one
concept to include many others。 For example； if a child had learned to say “banana”； she may refer
to all fruit； generically； as “banana”； at least for a short time。 “Ball” is another frequently
generalized word； and is often applied to anything that is round。 This process exemplifies the
child’s use of one concept to include others beyond its original meaning。
Holophrases
Holophrases are single…word utterances that represent the meanings of several words。 This is due
to the child’s lack of ability to form more plex word patterns at an early age。 “Car” is an
example of a holophrase。 Many children simply say； “car” to indicate that they want to ride in a car
or to tell a parent to look at a car。 Before syntax； children express themselves by naming the most
critical aspects of a thought process。
154
CHAPTER 9： COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Telegraphic Speech
Telegraphic Speech uses content words and leaves out prepositions； articles； and anything else that
is not critical to expression of the thought。 At this time； you get ments such as； “car fast。” As the
child’s vocabulary expands； sentences increase in length and their specific meaning bees easier
to discern。
Metalinguistic Awareness
Metalinguistic Awareness is the ability to think about using language。 Sentences get longer； more
plex； and you see the emergence of puns and jokes； such as play…on…word games； begin to
appear in the vocabulary of the school…aged child。
Language Acquisition Theories
For most of its history； psychology has expressed little interest in language。 Once it did express
interest in language； however； a number of theories followed in quick succession。
Learning Theories
B。 F。 Skinner proposed that children learn language by imitation and reinforcement。 This idea
would hold that children learn to speak by imitating older children and adults。 Specifically；
Skinner proposed that children learn by association of words within sentences； with each word
being a stimulus for the one following it。
Nativist Theories
This perspective was proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s and 60s as a rebuttal to Skinner’s
theory； a theory Chomsky regarded as flawed。 Chomsky felt that the flaw was in the association of
ideas； stating that if that was a valid premise； the same stimulus word would always lead to the
same response。 He proposed that humans are born with a “native” ability to learn language； that
we have a built…in or hardwired capability for language acquisition。 Part of Chomsky’s logic for his
theory is that the language acquisition process is the same； cross…culturally。 No matter where you
are or what language you learn to speak； the process is the same。 He f