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model and of using unconscious dynamic explanations to explain a basically ordinary process
of maladaptive learning are nothing less than fraud。”
。 Relevant media： Start your lecture by reading all or part of an article in the school or local
newspaper that highlights a major point to be made in the lecture。
。 Relevant student material： “A student from my other class came to ask me yesterday whether I
might refer him to a psychiatrist。 After a long discussion； it seemed evident that his problem
was loneliness； and I do not know a therapist who treats that。 How unusual and bizarre a
problem is loneliness？ Are any of you afflicted by it？ Let us discuss that topic today。”
。 Concrete instances （people rather than abstract variables）： “It’s hard to imagine that we would ever
be blindly obedient to authority as participants in Milgram’s experiments were。 ‘Not me； I’m
different；’ you say。 ‘I’d be independent。’ What do you think the people in Nixon’s presidential
cabinet said before the Watergate scandal？ Moreover； what about the 900 people who took part
in the mass suicide pact in Guyana？ Were they being loyal to their leader； the Reverend Jim
Jones？ Dedicated to their cause？ Faithful to their religious beliefs？ Alternatively； were they
blindly obedient fanatics who were brainwashed by a dictator？ Who is absolutely certain they
would not have drunk the poison at Jonestown if they had been members of the People’s
Temple？”
。 Shared experiences： “We all know people who。 。 。” or “I’m sure that you； like me； have been in
love and maybe we have even experienced similar emotions when that union was at its height
and ＇pause＇ when the relationship somehow went wrong； failed； died。 Let’s examine the nature
of emotions 。 。 。”
。 Challenge： “My daughter asked me if blind people ever dream in colors。 Who has an answer I
can give her？”
。 Turn of phrase： “What’s the difference between a psychologist who studies animal learning and
a magician who uses animals in his act？ The psychologist pulls habits out of his rats。”
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。 Individualize prior student input： “You recall that in our last lecture a student challenged the
view that pain is a sensation parable to other senses。 Ms。 Jones’ pain…as…unique sensation
theory； in fact； fits some new evidence。”
WITHIN THE LECTURE
The material within the lecture should follow a logical order。 Among the organizational schemes you can
use are：
CAUSE AND EFFECT
Cite and explain events by referring to their origins。 For example； you can discuss how the criticisms of
existing theories led to the development of new perspectives。
TIME SEQUENTIAL
Arrange lecture ideas chronologically。 For example； you can explain how information moves from one
memory system to another through a series of steps。 Information is encoded into sensory memory； the
important information moves on to short…term memory （where it is rehearsed or lost）； and so on。
TOPICAL
Focus on parallel elements of different discussion topics。 For example； when teaching the major
psychological disorders； you can discuss their similarities。
PROBLEM—SOLUTION
Follow the statement of a problem with alternative solutions。 For example； you might pose the problem：
What are the consequences of frustration？ You could then go on to discuss the responses； such as；
frustration may lead to aggression。
PRO—CON
Present a two…sided discussion of a value…laden topic。 When using this method； be certain to give each side
equal weight。 Let the students decide for themselves which side they want to take。 For example； the topic of
deinstitutionalization has an inherent adversarial challenge。 On the one hand； research shows that many
institutionalized patients can exist and improve in a “least restrictive environment。” Letting them out of
institutions； moreover； is economically beneficial to the various state and local governments and thus to the
taxpayer。 On the other hand； if the patients are deinstitutionalized in munities lacking sufficient
services； the former patients will be forced out onto the streets to fend for themselves。 Such a situation can be
dangerous both to them and to the munities in which they reside。
ASCENDING—DESCENDING
Arrange lecture topics according to their importance； familiarity； or plexity。 For example； arrange the
major psychological disorders from most debilitating to least debilitating； or from hardest to easiest to
diagnose。
TO KEEP THEIR ATTENTION FROM WANDERING
During the standard 50…minute hour； your students’ attention will frequently wander in response to
external distractions （attractive fellow students； campus newspapers； outside noises） and internal
distractions （hunger； fatigue from late…night parties or athletic practice； distress over an exam failed during
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the preceding class period； sexual daydreams whose fantasy is much more stimulating than any lecture）。
This fierce petition means that at any given time many students are unaware of the important things
you have said。 （Try collecting a sample of your students’ notes from time to time to see how much of your
output was never received or was grossly distorted。）
Audience distractions may be minimized in several ways：
。 Timing： Hold your main points to about 5 minutes each （never more than 10 minutes） and
insert a bit of humor； an anecdote； or an opportunity for a few questions into the transition
period preceding the next main point。 An outline on the board or a mimeographed outline is
beneficial in keeping the students–and yourself–on track。
。 Variety： Use catchy stylistic devices （stories； clever brief demonstrations） and change your
expressive style （volume； pacing； pregnant pauses） to add variety to the rather narrow band of
stimuli involved in straight talk。 Although you have written out your lecture； do not read it！
。 Mini…climaxes： Draw your information together at several points throughout the lecture；
reemphasizing relevant ideas and conceptual ties and providing those students who may have
“zoned out” earlier with the means to reenter the flow of information。
。 Value the ending： The conclusion of the lecture is vital to its total impact； often； due to the recency
effect； the conclusion will be remembered best。 Use it well。 Never rush in the last quarter of the
class to say quickly all of the essential points。 It is better to reserve the time needed to effectively
summarize； even if students are left to expand a few of the main points on their own。
IN ADDITION TO LECTURE
DISCUSSIONS
Discussions have limited value in introductory courses for several reasons。 Classes are frequently too large
for their effective use； extroverts in the front rows may carry on a lively dialogue while their peers at the rear
call up their favorite daydreams。 In addition； discussions can be a “pooling of ignorance” because students
may not have read the assigned material in the text and may lack the background necessary to contribute to
a meaningful discussion。 Despite these considerations； students benefit from； and enjoy； sharing their ideas
and experiences。 The goal is to make that sharing educationally beneficial。 Here are some suggestions：
。 Make your intention clear to the students by saying “Let’s talk about how you feel when you’ve
been punished—when your parents criticize you or you get a ticket for a traffic violation；” or
“What do you think influences our self…esteem？ How do we form our opinions about
ourselves？”
。 Plan topics for discussion around experiences students have had； a film that has been shown；
or a situation that you have described。
。 Pause after introducing the topic or asking the question to give students time to consider a
response。
。 Tactfully summarize or repeat the point made by a student if the student has expressed himself
or herself poorly or did not speak loudly enough to be heard by class members。
。 Be receptive to students’ contributions to the discussion and reinforce them for participating。
Reward them with verbal mendations for ments and questions； and if the point they
have made is particularly relevant or insightful； let the class know。 When students’ ments
are erroneous or irrelevant； or when students have difficulty expressing themselves； still
respond in a positive tone； and try to salvage some part of their ments to move the
discussion along。
。 Try breaking the class into small groups for discussion。 Prepare explicit directions for the
groups； and require each group to make a report to you or to the class。
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DEMONSTRATIONS
Preparation is the key to the successful use of demonstrations。 If equipment or props are required； they
should be assembled and set up before class。 If something goes wrong； it is better to abandon or postpone
the demonstration than to fiddle with the equipment or send a student for a missing ingredient。 Remember
that petent people are more lovable if they make an occasional blunder； particularly if they can handle
the situation with humor。
Relate demonstrations to everyday experiences。 For example； if you demonstra