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2。 The Serial Position Effect suggests that the first and last items in a series
will be remembered better than items in the middle and is prised
of two separate effects：
a） The Primacy Effect suggests that the first items learned in a
series will be remembered better than others
b） The Recency Effect suggests that the last items learned in a
series will be remembered better than others
c） Contextual Distinctiveness suggests that the distinctiveness of
an item in a series may explain both the primacy and the
recency effects
C。 Retrieval Cues
1。 Recall involves the reproduction of information to which you were
previously exposed
2。 Recognition refers to the realization that a certain stimulus event is one
you have seen or heard before
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3。 Retrieval cues are the stimuli available as you search for a particular
memory
a） Retrieval cues can be provided externally by the environment；
or generated internally by associations and physical states
b） Retrieval cues are more straightforward and more useful for
recognition dm for recall
4。 Episodic and Semantic memory are two types of declarative memory
a） Episodic memories preserve； individually； the specific events
that you have personally experienced
（i） All memories begin as episodic memories
b） Semantic memories are generic； categorical memories； such as
the meanings of words and concepts
5。 Interference occurs when retrieval cues do not point effectively to one
specific memory
a） Proactive interference occurs when information acquired in the
past makes it more difficult to acquire new information
b） Retroactive interference occurs when the acquisition of new
information makes it harder to remember older information
D。 The Processes of Encoding and Retrieval
1。 Memory functions best when encoding and retrieval processes match
2。 Levels…of…Processing theory suggests that the deeper the level at which
information is processed； the more likely it is to be mitted to
memory
a） A difficulty with levels…of…processing theory is that it is not
always possible to specify exactly what makes certain
processes “shallow” or “deep”
3。 Processes and Implicit Memory
a） Transfer…appropriate processing suggests that memory is best
when the type of processing carried out at encoding transfers
to the processes required at retrieval
（i） Implicit memory is assessed using one of four tasks：
（a） Word fragment pletion
（b） Word stem pletion
（c） Word identification
（d） Anagrams
b） Priming is a process in which the first experience of the word
primes memory for later experiences； and is used to assess the
degree of implicit memory
c） These four implicit memory tests rely on a physical match
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between the original stimulus and the information given at
test
d） Category association relies on meaning or concept rather than
physical match
4。 Research suggests that if a specific type of processing is used to
encode information； that information will be retrieved most efficiently
when the retrieval method uses the same type of analysis
E。 Improving Memory for Unstructured Information
1。 Information that is not meaningful is difficult to remember
2。 Strategies for improving encoding include elaborative rehearsal and
mnemonics
a） Elaborative rehearsal refers to elaboration on the material to
enrich encoding； such as inventing a relationship that makes
an association less arbitrary
b） Mnemonics are devices that encode a long series of facts by
associating them with familiar and previously encoded
information
（i） Method of loci associates objects with some sequence
of places with which the individual is familiar
（ii） Acrostic…like mnemonics use the first letter of each word
to cue a response
（iii） Acronym mnemonics are instances in which the letter of
a word stands for a name or other piece of
information
3。 The key to learning arbitrary information is to encode information in a
way that provides yourself with efficient retrieval cues
F。 Metamemory
1。 Metamemory refers to implicit or explicit knowledge about memory
abilities and effective memory strategies
2。 Feelings…of…knowing are subjective sensations that the information is
stored somewhere in memory
a） The cue familiarity hypothesis suggests that people base their
feelings of knowing on their familiarity with the retrieval cue
b） The Accessibility Hypothesis suggests that people base their
judgments on accessibility of partial information from
memory
V。 Structures in Long…Term Memory
A。 Memory Structures
1。 An essential function of memory is to draw together similar
experiences to enable you to discover patterns in your interaction with
the environment。 This ability to categorize experience is one of the
most basic abilities of thinking organisms。
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2。 Concepts are mental representations of the categories formed by the
individual。 Concepts may represent objects； activities； properties；
abstract ideas； and relations。
3。 Prototypes are averages across the pool of exemplars； shifting slightly
each time a new exemplar is encountered
a） People respond more quickly to typical members of a category
than to more unusual ones
b） People find the average member of a category； even when it is
an average face； most pleasant
4。 Concepts do not exist in isolation
a） Basic level refers to a hierarchical level at which people best
categorize and think about objects
b） Schemas are conceptual frameworks or clusters of knowledge
regarding objects； people； and situations。
（i） These knowledge packages encode plex
generalizations about the individual’s experience of
the structure of the environment。
（ii） Schemas represent the individual’s average
experience of situations in the environment； and shift
with changing life events
B。 Remembering as a Reconstructive Process
1。 Information that cannot be remembered directly may be reconstructed；
based on more general types of stored knowledge
2。 Reconstructive Memory is not 100 percent accurate。 The reconstructed
memory is often different from the real occurrence。
3。 Distortions in reconstructive memory involve three kinds of
reconstructive processes：
a） Leveling； or simplifying the story
b） Sharpening； or highlighting and overemphasizing certain
details
c） Assimilating； or changing of details to better fit the
individual’s own background or knowledge
4。 Eyewitness Memory is quite vulnerable to distortion from post event
information
a） Individuals may be unable to discriminate between original
sources of memory traces
b） Research reinforces the belief that memories are often collages；
reconstructed from different elements of the individual’s past
experiences
c） Post event information can impair eyewitness memories even
when the witnesses are made explicitly aware that the
experimenter has attempted to mislead them
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d） When people are repeatedly exposed to the misleading
postevent information； they bee even more likely to report
false memories as real
VI。 Biological Aspects of Memory
A。 Searching for the Engram
1。 Lashley concluded that the elusive engram–a physical memory
representation in the brain –did not exist in any localized regions but
that it was widely distributed throughout the entire brain
2。 Four major brain structures are involved in memory：
a） Cerebellum； essential for procedural memory； memories
acquired through repetition； and classically conditioned
responses
b） Striatum； a plex of structures in the forebrain； the likely
basis for habit formation and stimulus…response connections
c） Cerebral cortex； responsible for sensory memories and
associations between sensations
d） Amygdala and hippocampus； largely responsible for declarative
memory of facts； dates； names； and emotionally significant
memories
B。 Amnesia
1。 Amnesia is the failure of memory over a prolonged period
2。 Selective impairment of memory suggests that different regions of the
brain are specialized for two types of knowledge； with hippocampal
damage most often impairing explicit memories
C。 Brain Imaging
1。 Research shows disproportionately high brain activity in the left
prefrontal cortex for encoding of episodic information and in the right
prefrontal cortex for retrieval of episodic information
2。 Functional MRI scans reveal that the more strongly areas in the
prefrontal cortex and parahippocampal cortex light up during scans；
the better participants are later able to recognize scenes or words
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 Ask the class to assume that they have short…term memory that lasts only a minute。 What
would a day in their life be like？ Why might they bee paranoid in their suspicions
about other people？ Now have students think about what it would be like if they had only
long…term memory？ Have students consider this latter problem in terms of Alzheimer’s
disease。
2。 Have students consider t