按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
presentation decreases the probability that a behavior will be repeated。 Examples of
positive punishment include such stimulus events as giving the organism electric shock if
it engages in a behavior that the experimenter considers undesirable。
4。 Negative Reinforcement； cell （4）； consists of removing a stimulus event that the organism
perceives as unpleasant。 This condition permits the organism to escape from an
unfavorable event。
Operant Conditioning Matrix
Pleasant Stimulus Unpleasant Stimulus
Presented （1） Positive Reinforcement–serves to
increase response frequency
（3） Positive Punishment–serves to
decrease response frequency
Removed （2） Negative Punishment–serves to
decrease response frequency
（4） Negative Reinforcement–serves to
increase response frequency
Skinner used the Law of Effect to derive the cornerstone of Behaviorism； which states that any
behavior can result in reinforcement or punishment。 Behavior resulting in reinforcement is more
likely to recur； behavior resulting in punishment is less likely to recur。 Skinner’s methods are a
specialized case of operant conditioning and his method is simpler than that used by Thorndike。
Additionally； Skinner made a distinction between classical conditioning and operant conditioning
that clarifies the difference between the two for many students。 Skinner said that classical
conditioning dealt with behavior which was elicited by an external stimulus； and that the elicited
behavior was an involuntary response （e。g。； salivation）。 He defined operant conditioning as
behavior emitted from within the participant； in response to external stimulus； but with the criteria
that the response was voluntary （cat pressing lever to get food）。 Skinner also developed a process
known as shaping； which he defined as the establishment of a new response by rewarding
successive approximations to the desired response。 He went on to define chaining； which is part of
the process of shaping； as being the reinforcement of each response by giving the animal an
opportunity to make the next response。 Skinner also defined what is known as the ABC’s of
Behavior； as follows：
ABC’s of Behavior
A = Antecedent （the stimulus event）
B = Behavior （the behavioral response to the stimulus）
C = Consequence （the reinforcement that follows the behavior）
The consequence of a given behavior served as the determinant of the likelihood of that behavior
117
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
being repeated in the future。 Given this model； operant conditioning is as easy as your A…B…C’s！
Behavioral Control of a Behavior Problem
Timmy B。 was a five…year…old child of average intelligence who was a “behavior problem。” He
screamed； fought； disobeyed； and bossed others both at home and school； despite his young age。
His parents were concerned over his obviously undesirable behavior； which they expected to get
even worse as he grew older。 “He continually told other children what to do and how to play； and
enforced his demands with punches； kicks； and slaps；” they reported。
A behavioral psychologist’s observations of Timmy’s mother’s interaction with her son revealed
three things：
1。 She reinforced his undesirable behavior with attention
2。 She did not enforce consequences in a consistent fashion
3。 She did not make the relationship between behavior and consequence clear； because she
often used lengthy explanations before applying discipline
The behavioral psychologists who consulted with Timmy’s mother taught her to arrange three
types of contingencies for Timmy’s behaviors： punishment； extinction； and positive reinforcement。
Punishment： As soon as Timmy acted aggressively or disobediently； Mrs。 B。 took him to a
time…out room that contained no items of interest to the child。 He was told only that he
could not stay with the others if he fought or disobeyed。 He was put in the time…out room；
without conversation or further explanation； for a two…minute period （or two minutes from
the end of his last cry or tantrum）。 This punishment involved the negative stimulus of loss
of opportunity for stimulation。 It could be removed by behaving in socially acceptable
ways。 When the time was up； Timmy was taken back to his regular activities without
ment on the previous episode。
Extinction： Less serious forms of undesirable behavior were ignored so that they would
have no reinforcing consequences。
Positive Reinforcement： Desirable behaviors such as cooperative play and following
instructions were directly praised； and at the end of some periods of desirable play Timmy
got a special treat。
To demonstrate the effectiveness of mother as behavior therapist； the psychologists first observed
Timmy’s behavior for a baseline period； and then instructed Mrs。 B。 to carry out her behavioral
contingency management program。 This sequence was then repeated。 Timmy’s aggressive and
disobedient behaviors were dramatically changed by manipulating their consequences。 His parents
and neighbors mented that Timmy behaved like a “different child。” During the first baseline
period Timmy followed only about 30 percent of instructions given to him； but a week later he was
following three…fourths of them。 On some days； Timmy never misbehaved； even not striking back
when another child hit him。 As Timmy’s problem behavior declined； his mother mented more
favorably about him； she felt she was a more effective mother and showed more affection for her
son。
WALDEN TWO
In Walden Two； B。 F。 Skinner presented a hypothetical munity based on behavioral principles。
Given what we know today about behaviorism； and cognitive theory； is such a munity feasible？
You might discuss with students some of the ideas presented in Walden Two and ask for their
opinions about these ideas。 Are they outdated？ Are they workable？ Have recent gains in knowledge
in cognitive theory and information processing made some of Skinner’s ideas obsolete？ Do students
118
CHAPTER 7： LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
even believe that such a munity is possible？ If so； how might they organize it differently than
Skinner’s munity？ （From Koss）
CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
Punishment and the Criminal Justice System。 Skinner and his followers identified several
conditions that must be met for punishment to be effective。 Your text discusses three of them： it must
be immediate； it must be consistent； and it must be sufficiently aversive but not overly aversive。
Some other conditions that make punishment more effective are that： it should be directly related to
the problem behavior so that it is clearly seen as a consequence of the behavior； it should be part of
a larger process in which the reason for the punishment is clearly explained and the desirable
behavior is clearly explained； the person should be rewarded for engaging in more desirable
behaviors。 In examining today’s criminal justice system in the United States； how many of these
conditions does it consistently meet？ In most cases； students agree that it does not meet many of
them； if any of them。 Perhaps this is contributes to the high recidivism rate we have in our justice
system。 What ideas do students have to utilize skinner’s conditions and perhaps improve the
effectiveness of the current system？
MORE ON BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Have students identify a behavior they would like to change。 Discuss behavior modification
principles with them and have them fill out Student Activity 5。4 （behavior modification） as part of
developing a plan to modify the behavior they identified。 It is important to review the qualities of a
good goal （i。e。 it is specific； it is behavioral； it is quantifiable； it is reasonably attainable）。 And since
choosing an effective reward is crucial to making a plan such as this work； review the qualities of a
good reward （i。e。 it should be something they really want； but can live without； in case they fail to
achieve their sub goals； it should be something they have plete control over）。 This can be a
useful demonstration of behavior modification as well as an activity that can really improve the
quality of some students’ lives。
BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILES
Albert Bandura （b。 1925）
When Daddy spanks Johnny for misbehaving； he may inadvertently be providing Johnny with a
model of aggressive behavior that Johnny will incorporate into his own pattern of behavior。 This
discovery is only one of the important observations that Albert Bandura has brought to the
attention of psychologists and sociologists in recent years。
Graduating from the University of British Columbia in 1949 at the age of 24； Bandura went on to
earn his doctorate in clinical psychology at the State University of Iowa in 1952。 There； under the
guidance of Kenneth Spence； who also served as mentor to Neal Miller and John Dollard； Bandura
realized the need for more careful examination of the behavior modification process as it unfolds
during psychotherapy。 He drew from Hullian learning theory； Skinnerian behaviorism； and the
current theories of modeling and imitation to formulate his own groundbreaking socia