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subjects who are very expressive–the guilty one might give it all away with the first blush。
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
1。 Half of the stimulus words are neutral； in the sense that they are not associated with any aspect of
the crime； whereas half are emotionally loaded； in that they relate to some details of the crime of
which you and the “criminal；” but not the innocent suspect； are aware。 Have the class discuss
which words should be counted as “critical”； based on their knowledge of the crime。 To help them
with this； you may want to read a description of the crime （the instructions given to the suspect）。
Then have them calculate mean reaction times separately for both types of words for each suspect。
2。 Mention the use of premeasured RTs for neutral words and its function。
3。 Was there a difference in the reaction time of the two suspects to the critical words they had in
mon？ Repeat this analysis for the other measures。 How would you explain the differences you
observed？
4。 There may be two plex effects of guilt or emotion on RT： a perseverance effect that carries over to
the next word in the sequence； and a heightened variability effect of giving either much faster or
slower RTs to the critical words。 This would yield a mean parable to the innocent victim； so
different statistical methods might have to be used to assess the significance of this bimodal
reaction tendency （should it occur）。
5。 Ask students to suggest other ways of analyzing the data to detect guilt。 Have them discuss which
measures seem to be doing the best job of predicting guilt。 Using the measures they agree on； have
the students predict which of the two suspects is guilty。 Each student should make a private verdict
and give an estimate of his or her confidence in the verdict。 These data should be tallied and
presented to the class。 （Once the verdicts are in； have the two suspects return to the room for a
discussion of the experiment。）
6。 Are the three response measures correlated？ How might they be bined to improve their
predictive efficiency？ Can they be refined？ Can you think of better measures （for example； asking
each suspect to make up a story using the critical words）？
DISCUSSION； EXTENSIONS； AND EXPERIMENTAL VARIATIONS
1。 If your section runs for one and one…half hours or so； you might add one or both of the following
aspects： （a） a passive acplice who acpanies the killer but does not talk to him； watches the
questionable deed； has access to the relevant information but is neither a blackmailer； a killer； nor a
destroyer of evidence； （b） a coincidental； innocent suspect who； by happenstance； does some weird
things that involve the same critical words but is not guilty of any crime。 For example； your letter to
this person might say he is looking for the sign of a skull and cross…bones on a letter which； when
he find it in Room____； he is to crush and destroy because he thinks it contains a curse； etc。 These
additions make lie detection less easy and open discussion about false…positives； personal
responsibility； and reliability。
2。 Why would it be important for the experimenter and the timekeeper not to know which suspect was
guilty？
3。 Could you train the guilty person not to betray himself through his emotional arousal？ Are there
people who have learned to suppress or not experience guilt？ How could their guilt be assessed？
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4。 What role does self…monitoring play in being able to infer internal states from external behavior？
5。 What does it mean to be “poker faced” or to have a face “like an open book”？
6。 What kinds of external behavior are the best indicators of internal states？ How can we train
ourselves to monitor and control such sources of channel leakage？
7。 What circumstances and variables lead to errors and misinterpretations of the “inner person” from
outer appearances？ Also consider the conditions under which we judge a nonparticipant as “shy”
or “bored；” “unmotivated；” or “aloof； “not prepared” or “reserved。”
8。 How can we distinguish between generalized arousal （anxiety from being put into a novel situation
or from being tested） and the specific motivation stemming from guilt？
9。 Sigmund Freud used word association as a clue to detect secrets the person concealed even from
him… or herself。 The idea that repressed thoughts will be revealed in overt behavior （slips of the
tongue； strange associations； etc。） is basic to Freudian psychodynamic notions of the functioning of
personality。
10。 Contrast the methodologies of using qualitative content analysis of word associations to that of
quantitative reaction time measures to get at the “deeper” structure of functioning。 Personality
psychologists and lay people more often use the former； while cognitive psychologists tend to use
the latter。 Beyond the methods of obtaining data； are there differences in how one goes about
making inferences from these two sources of data？
11。 Jury Decisions。 If there is time； an interesting variation is to divide the class into juries with the
mandate of ing to a unanimous decision in x…minutes’ time。 Ask a spokesperson for each jury to
call out its verdict。 Be sure to have jury members indicate the confidence level of their personal
verdict and the jury’s final decision。 Analyze any changes in confidence or personal decisions due
to the social influence of other jurors。 How are explanations for erroneous inferences handled after
the class learns the “truth”？ An analysis of the psychology of the jury process would fit here or
could be saved for the “social” part of your course。 The “Detecting Guilt” demonstration has many
interesting implications for discussing the decision…making process of real juries； judges； and
police。 Section leaders should try to use current examples and events； if available。 Local jury trials；
college disciplinary hearings； and police investigations can all be used to begin a discussion of the
judicial determination of guilt。
12。 Free Association。 In psychotherapy； free association； recall； and self…revelation all are contingent on
the patient’s trust of the therapist。 Genuine free association； affective recall； and the ability to reveal
oneself indicate that the basic premise of “be on guard” in relation to others and in relation to
oneself has been loosened； has less potency as a maxim in living。 This represents a momentous
advance in the individual’s life （an insight sought as a primary goal of Freudian analysis）。 （See
Singer； E。 （1965）。 Key concepts in psychotherapy。）
13。 An interesting variation to get at expectancy effects is to have half the judges be aware of the critical
words before the testing begins and half unaware and see if this condition influences their data and
conclusions。
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
The following resources contain much to stimulate discussion of the psychological issues underlying
various types of legal evidence； police confessions； eyewitness accounts； lie…detector test； etc。
1。 Zimbardo； P。 （1971）。 The psychology of police confessions。 In R。 Perrucci & M。 Pilisuk； The triple
revolution emerging。 Boston： Little； Brown & Co。
2。 Barland； G。H。； & Raskin； D。C。 （1973）。 Detection of deception。 In Electrodermal activity in psychological
research （pp。 417…477）。 New York： Academic Press。
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3。 Examples of how psychologists have studied guilt in relation to subsequent pliance：
。 Subjects who failed to win 20 for another person signed up down the hall to donate blood 100
percent of the time； as opposed to 57 percent of the nonguilty subjects。
。 Subjects who thought they broke a stranger’s camera helped a lady who spilled groceries 55
percent of the time； as opposed to 15 percent of the nonguilty subjects。
。 Subjects who knocked over a stack of dissertation references agreed to help on a conservation
campaign 80 percent of the time as opposed to 45 percent of the time for nonguilty subjects。
MATERIALS
。 Data tally sheet of reactions to each of 30 stimulus words
。 Expressive Behavior Encoding Guide and table for summarizing data for each of two subjects。
。 Table of word association norms
。 Reaction Time summary table
。 Verdict slip
。 Stopwatch； if you have one
。 Letters in unmarked envelopes
。 Materials in “crime room”： 3 matches； bloodstained envelope to “Miss Chris” with woman’s photo in it；
signed “All my love”； a metal pan。
INSTRUCTIONS TO GUILTY SUSPECT
You have just brutally murdered a woman who has been trying to blackmail you。 She wanted you to buy a
promising letter you wrote her。 You refused to pay and； during a violent argument as you tried to get
away with the letter； you hit her over the head with a bat。 The red blood spurting from her crushed skull
covered the envelope。 Rushing out in fear； you took the letter and threw the blood…streaked envelope into the
trash basket。
Nevertheless； at this moment； you realize your fingerprints are on the envelope； and you feel there might be
something else inside the letter that might be damaging evidence against you。
You must destroy that evidence or be discovered。 You did n