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se of its reliance on the mean。
Standard Error of Measurement
a statistical procedure used to determine the amount of error of any measurement device
Standard Error of the Mean
An estimation of the unaccounted for error within a mean。 If the mean is 10 and the standard error of the mean is 2； then the true score is likely to fall somewhere between 8 and 12 or 10 ＋/… 2。
Standardization
The process of making a test or procedure the same for everyone so that results can be pared to each other。
Standard Score
A score derived by transforming the data based on the standard deviation。 Standard scores can then be pared to one another on face value。 （See z…score； T…score； NCE score； stanines； and Wechsler's Deviation IQ Score）
Stanine
A standard score that literally means Standard Nine； stanines have a mean of five and a standard deviation of approximately two。 Stanines 2 through 8 are exactly 1/2 standard deviations and stanines one and nine or open ended。
Statistic
An observed characteristic of a sample （e。g。； 20％ improvement rate； range of IQ’s）
State
A temporary internal characteristic （e。g。； depressed； angry）
State Dependent Memory
The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind （e。g。； depressed； happy； somber） is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind。
Stem and Leaf Display
A multiple column table depicting the individual digits of the scores。 A score of 95 would have a stem of 9 and a leaf of 5； a score of 62 would have a stem of 6 and a leaf of 2。 If a particular stem has more than one leaf； such as the scores 54； 58； and 51； the stem of 5 has three leaves； in this case 458。
Stimulus
Anything in the environment to which one responds。
Stimulus Discrimination
The ability to tell the difference and therefore not respond to similar stimuli。
Stimulus Generalization
The response to new stimuli due its similarity to the original stimuli。
Storage
The process of saving information in long term memory
Stress
The physical and psychological result of internal or external pressure。
Stressor
Anything； internal or external； which applies psychological pressure on an individual。
Structuralism
School of thought from the 19th century focused on the gathering of psychological information through the examination of the structure of the mind。
Subjective Reality
The perception of reality made by an individual that may be different from the perception made by another person。
Subject Matching
A method of reducing bias in a sample of subjects by matching specific criteria of the sample to the true characteristics of the population。 （Example： If the population is 60％ female then 60％ of the subjects in the sample should also be female）
Sublimation
A defense mechanism where undesired or unacceptable impulses are transformed into behaviors which are accepted by society。
Superego
In Psychoanalytical theory； the part of the personality that represents the conscience。
Supertraits
Hans Eysenck's term for his two distinct categories of personality traits。 They include Introversion…Extroversion and Neuroticism。 According to Eysenck； each of us fall on a continuum based on the degree of each supertraits。
Suppression
The defense mechanism where we push unacceptable thoughts out of consciousness and into our unconscious。
Survey
A research technique in which subjects respond to a series of questions。
Syllogism
Aristotle’s theory of reasoning where two true statements are followed by a single logical conclusion。
Sympathetic Nervous System （SNS）
Part of the Autonomic Nervous System responsible for the fight or flight phenomenon and which plays a role （along with the Parasympathetic Nervous System） in maintaining the body's homeostasis。
Synapse
The space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of another through which neurotransmitters travel。
Systematic Desensitization
A treatment technique where the client is exposed to gradually increasing anxiety provoking stimuli while relaxing； the goal is for the client to eventually confront a phobia or fear without the previously associated anxiety。
T
T…Score
A standard score that sets the mean to fifty and standard deviation to ten。 Used on a number of tests including the MMPI。
T…Test
A group of statistics used to determine if a significance difference exists between the means of two sets of data。
Tactile
The sense of touch。
TAT
See Thematic Apperception Test
Temperament
A person’s typical way of responding to his or her environment。
Temporal Lobe
One of the four lobes of the brain。 Contains the auditory cortex and therefore plays a role in receptive language as well as memory and emotion。
Test…Retest Reliability
The correlation coefficient determined by paring the scores of the same measuring device administered to the same people on two different occasions。
Tetrachoric Correlation
A correlational technique used to estimate the Pearson…Product correlation of two continuous variables that have been dichotomized （Example： age is continuous； but when it is split into two groups； such as over 40 and under 40； it bees dichotomous）。
Thalamus
Considered the central switching station of the brain because all of the body's senses （except the olfactory senses） pass through this before being relayed to the brain。
Thematic Apperception Test （TAT）
A subjective personality test where ambiguous pictures are shown to a subject and they are asked to tell a story related to them。
Theory
A general idea about the relationship of two or more variables。
Time Series Design
A research design where subjects are measured at specific times before and after the treatment has been administered in order to determine the long term effects of the treatment
Trait
A relatively permanent internal characteristic （e。g。； friendly； outgoing）
Transference
Intense feelings directed toward the therapist that many clients experience in the process of therapy。
Trial and Error Learning
Learning that takes place through the application of possible solutions to a problem。
True Experiment
Research design that utilizes the most control over subjects and utilizes randomization
True Score
the amount of the observed score that truly represents what you are intending to measure。
Two…Way ANOVA
An Analysis of Variance used when there are two independent variables。
Type A Personality
A theory used to describe a person with a significant number of traits focused on urgency； impatience； success； and excessive petition。
Type B Personality
A theory used to describe person with a significant number of traits focused on relaxation； lack of urgency； and normal or reduced petition。
Type I Error
The error that is mitted when a true null hypothesis is rejected erroneously。 The probability of a Type I Error is abbreviated with the lowercase Greek letter alpha。
Type II Error
The error that is mitted when a false null hypothesis is accepted erroneously。 The probability of a Type II Error is abbreviated with the uppercase Greek letter beta。
U
Unconditional Positive Regard
The nonjudgmental empathy and respect for another person。
Unconditioned Response
The response in a stimulus…response chain that is naturally occurring as opposed to learned。
Unconditioned Stimulus
The stimulus in a stimulus…response chain that is naturally occurring as opposed to learned。
Unconscious
According to Freud； the area of the psyche where unknown wishes and needs are kept that play a significant role in our conscious behavior。
Upper Confidence Level
The upper limit of a confidence interval。 If prediction states that the true score falls between 80 and 90； then the upper confidence level is 90。
V
Validity
Statistical technique used to determine if a test is actually measuring what it is intended to measure。
Variability
The degree to which a distribution of scores vary around the mean。 High variability means scores are spread wider apart and low variability means scores are relatively close together。 Typical ways of determining variability are the range； interquartile range； semi…interquartile range； variance； and standard deviation。
Variable
Any factor which has the potential to influence another factor in a research study。
Variable Interval Schedule
A schedule in which the reinforcement is presented after a varying amount of time。
Variable Ratio Schedule
A schedule in which the reinforcement is presented after a varying number of responses。
Variance
A measure of spread within a distribution （the square of the standard deviation）。
Vicarious Reinforcement
The reinforcement that occurs as a result of watching a model get reinforced for a specific behavior or series of behaviors。
W
WAIS…III
See Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale； Third Edition。
Weber's Law
The amount of change necessary to detect a different in a stimuli must be staged in a percentage since recognition of the change is relative to the characteristics of the initial stimulus （e。g。； a one pound change in the weight of a pencil would be more easily recognized than a one pound weight added to a 300 pound barbell