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illigrams per cubic meter； predicted vertical temperature gradients； and cloud…width inputs； we see that the downwind toxic vapor hazard to large areas of the FRG and DDR will be approximately 0。3 （plus or minus 50％ in our calculations； allowing for expected impurities and chemical breakdown in the chemical munitions） as great as that at the targets themselves。
Since open Soviet literature calls for source （that is； target） concentrations well beyond median lethal dose （LCT…50）； we see that the entire German civilian population is at the gravest risk Expected allied retaliation to such chemical strikes would be largely psychological in nature…the use of Soviet munitions alone will effectively contaminate most of Greater Germany； it is expected that no part of Germany east of the Rhein can be considered safe to unprotected personnel； beginning 12 hours after the first munitions are expended。 Similar effects may be expected in parts of Czechoslovakia； and even western Poland； depending on wind direction and speed。 Such contamination must be expected； moreover； to continue at least 1。5 times the mean persistence level of the agents used。
This is the last （and statistically most likely） of the scenarios outlined by the contract specifications。
SECTION VIII： EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
As the reader will appreciate； although given tactical warning of only a few minutes； alerted military formations can confidently be expected to sufferfew casualties （albeit with 30…50％ degradation of bat effectiveness；this degradation likely； however； to equate to both sides）； expected casualties es civilians will actually be greater than those anticipated from a Level…2 exchange of tactical nuclear weapons （200 warheads @ ｛ 100kt yield； seeAppendix A of Annex 1） at a mix of military and civilian/industrial targets。 Thus； despite the fact that chemical munitions are not of themselves directly damaging to fixed industrial assets； serious near… and long…term economic effects must be expected。 Even the use of nonpersistentagents at the FEBA （Forward Edge of the Battle Area） cannot but have major impact on the civilian population due to the heavily urbanized character of the German countryside and the patent inability of any government to provide adequate protection for its civilian population。
In terms of immediate effects； the 10；000；000＋ civilian fatality floor figure in Scenario 2 represents a public health problem worse by an order of magnitude than that following the Bangladesh Cyclone disaster of 1970； and is likely to include synergistic effects well beyond the scope of this study。 （Contract specifications specifically excluded investigation into bidecological effects from a major chemical exchange。 While the difficulty associated with an in…depth examination of this subject is impossible at this writing to estimate； the reader is cautioned that such far…reaching effects are less easily dealt with than studied。 It might be necessary； for example； to import tons of insect larvae before the simplest food crops can again flourish in Western Europe。） For the moment the ability even of organized armies to dispose of millions of civilian bodies in advanced stages of deposition is not something to be taken for granted。 And the civilians needed for the reestablishment of industrial production （under what are almost certainly optimistic estimates） will have been at the least decimated in the literal； classical sense。
An Analysis of the Effects of Chemical
Warfare in the European Theater Utilizing
Atmospheric Release Advisory Capability （ARAC） Prediction
Lawrence…Livermore National Laboratories
LLNL 88…2504 * CR 8305/89/178
SIGMA 2
Specified External Distribution Only
｝｝SECRET｛｛
Johannes Bitner did not throw the report into his trash basket…he felt like washing his hands。 Yet another similarity between East and West； he thought coldly。 Their government reports are written by puters to be read by calculators。 Just like ours。 Just like ours。
〃Herr Generaloberst。〃 The Chief of the munist Party of the DDR looked up at his mander…in…Chief。 He and another officer had e early in the morning…and in civilian clothes…to visit him at his plush private residence in Wandlitz； the enclave of the Party elite outside Berlin。 They had delivered the document obtained only two days earlier through a highly placed DDR agent in West Germany's Ministry of Defense。 〃Just how accurate is this document？〃
〃rade Secretary； we cannot check their puter models； of course； but their formulae； their estimates for the persistence of Soviet chemical weapons； their predicted weather patterns…that is； all of the data which supposedly underlies this study…has been examined by members of my intelligence staff and rechecked by some chosen faculty members at the University of Leipzig。 There is no reason to believe that it is anything but genuine。〃
〃In fact；〃 said Colonel Mellethin； director of Foreign Operations Analysis…he was a spare； austere man with eyes that clearly had not known sleep for some days…〃the Americans understate the total quantities of munitions employed； because they consistently overstate the accuracy of Russian delivery systems。〃 The other two men in the room noted at once that Russian had been substituted for Soviet。
〃There is something else you wish to say； Mellethin？〃 Bitner asked sharply。
〃rade Secretary； from the Russian point of view； what is the objective of this war？〃
〃The neutralization of NATO； and access to greater economic assets。 Say what you have to say； rade Colonel；〃 Bitner ordered。
〃rade； success for the Warsaw Pact would leave a united Germany。 I point out that a united Germany； even a united socialist Germany； would be viewed as a strategic threat by the Soviet Union…after all； we are better socialists than they； nicht wahr？〃 Mellethin took a deep breath before going on。 Was he risking his life？ Did it matter？ The family name had once been von Mellethin； and unwavering loyalty to the State was not something that munism had taught his line of professional soldiers。 〃rade Party Secretary； Soviet success in this operation will leave Germany； socialist and capitalist； as barren as the surface of the moon； a minimum of ten to thirty percent of our people dead； our land poisoned； even without Western chemical retaliation。 rade； we learned today that the Americans have begun airlifting 'Bigeye' chemical aircraft bombs into their base at Ramstein。 If our 'allies' use their chemical weapons； and then NATO retaliates in kind； it is entirely possible that our country…that German culture itself…will pletely cease to exist。 Such an objective is not militarily defensible； but I suggest； rade； that this could be an additional； political objective of the Russian plan。〃
Bitner's expression didn't change a whit； and his visitors couldn't see the chill that was enveloping their national leader。 The meeting he'd had the previous week in Warsaw had been unsettling enough； but now the reason behind the greasy reassurances offered him by the Soviet leadership seemed all too clear。
〃There is no way to protect our civilian population？〃 Bitner asked。
〃rade。〃 The General sighed。 〃These persistent agents need not be breathed。 They also work through the skin。 If one touches a contaminated surface； one is poisoned。 Even if we order our people to remain in their homes with windows and door closed； houses and apartment blocks are not airtight。 And people still must eat。 Factory workers in certain essential industries still must work。 Medical personnel； police； and internal security personnel…some of our most valuable citizens will be the most gravely exposed。 These aerosols will travel invisibly across our country； virtually undetectable。 They will leave a toxic film on lawns； trees； fences； walls； trucks…nearly everything。 The rain will wash much off； but tests made years ago show that some of these poisons…those on the undersides of fences； for example…will persist for weeks； even months。 We would need thousands of decontamination teams even to begin the task of making our country safe enough for our citizens to walk to their markets。 Colonel Mellethin is correct： if the Russians use their gas weapons； and then the Americans reply in kind； we would be fortunate if half our citizens were alive six months from today。 It is actually easier to protect our citizens from nuclear weapons than against gasses； and nuclear effects are shorter…lived。〃
〃Du lieber Gott。 〃
MOSCOW； R。S。F。S。R。
〃They said what？〃 The Defense Minister almost screamed。
〃Our fraternal socialist rades of the German Democratic Republic have informed us that they can only view the use of chemical munitions inside their territory as a matter of the gravest national concern。〃 The Foreign Minister spoke dryly。 〃Moreover； they have forwarded to us intelligence reports which show clearly that the use of such weapons would only serve to harden NATO resolve…and possibly open the door to other weapons of mass destruction。〃
〃But they are part of the plan！〃 Defense objected。
〃rades；〃 Sergetov observed。 〃We all know that the use of chemical munitions will have calamitous effects on civilians…wouldn't this promise our political maskirovka？ Aren't we saying that our quarrel is with the West German government？ How might it lo