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originally assigned to it； and nobody finds that it usurps when；
* it coins money；
* it regulates weights and measures；
* it establishes quarantines；
* on condition of an indemnity； it expropriates private property for
public utility；
* it builds lighthouses； harbors； dikes； canals； roads；
* it defrays the cost of scientific expeditions；
* it founds museums and public libraries；
* at times； toleration is shown for its support of universities；
schools； churches； and theaters；
and； to justify fresh drafts on private purses for such objects； no
reason is assigned for it but the common interest。 （l'intérêt commun）
… Why should it not； in like manner； take upon itself every enterprise
for the benefit of all？ Why should it hesitate in commanding the
execution of every work advantageous to the community； and why abstain
from forbidding every harmful work？ Now please note that in human
society every act or omission； even the most concealed or private； is
either a loss or a gain to society。 So if I neglect to take care of
my property or of my health； of my intellect or of my soul； I
undermine or weaken in my person a member of the community which can
only be rich； healthy and strong through the wealth； health and
strength of his fellow members； so that； from this point of view； my
private actions are all public benefits or public injuries。 Why then；
from this point of view； should the State scruple about prescribing
some of these to me and forbidding others？ Why； in order to better
exercise this right； and better fulfill this obligation； should it not
constitute itself the universal contractor for labor； and the
universal distributor of productions？ Why should it not become the
sole agriculturist； manufacturer and merchant； the unique proprietor
and administrator of all France？ … Precisely because this would be
opposed to the common weal （l'intérêt de tous； the interest of
everyone）＇15＇。 Here the second principle； that advanced against
individual independence； operates inversely； and； instead of being an
adversary； it becomes a champion。 Far from setting the State free； it
puts another chain around its neck； and thus strengthens the fence
within which modern conscience and modern honor have confined the
public guardian。
V。
Direct common interest。 … This consists in the absence of constraint。
… Two reasons in favor of freedom of action。 … Character； in general；
of the individual man。 … Modern complication。
In what； indeed； does the common weal （l'intérêt de tous； the interest
of everyone） consist？ … In the interest of each person； while that
which interests each person is the things of which the possession is
agreeable and deprivation painful。 The whole world would in vain
gainsay this point； every sensation is personal。 My suffering and my
enjoyments are not to be contested any more than my inclination for
objects which procure me the one； and my dislike of objects which
procure me the other。 There is； therefore； no arbitrary definition of
each one's particular interest； this exists as a fact independently of
the legislator； all that remains is to show what this interest is； and
what each individual prefers。 Preferences vary according to race；
time； place and circumstance。 Among the possessions which are ever
desirable and the privation of which is ever dreaded； there is one；
however； which； directly desired； and for itself； becomes； through the
progress of civilization； more and more cherished； and of which the
privation becomes； through the progress of civilization； more and more
grievous。 That is the disposition of one's self； the full ownership
of one's body and property； the faculty of thinking； believing and
worshipping as one pleases； of associating with others； of acting
separately or along with others； in all senses and without hindrance；
in short； one's liberty。 That this liberty may as extensive as
possible is； in all times； one of man's great needs； and； in our days；
it is his greatest need。 There are two reasons for this； one natural
and the other historical。 …
By nature Man is an individual； that is to say a small distinct world
in himself； a center apart in an enclosed circle； a detached organism
complete in itself and which suffers when his spontaneous inclinations
are frustrated by the intervention of an outside force。
The passage of time has made him a complicated organism； upon which
three or four religions； five or six civilizations； thirty centuries
of rich culture have left their imprint； in which its acquisitions are
combined together； wherein inherited qualities are crossbred； wherein
special traits have accumulated in such a way as to produce the most
original and the most sensitive of beings。 As civilization increases；
so does his complexity： with the result that man's originality
strengthens and his sensitivity become keener； from which it follows
that the more civilized he becomes； the greater his repugnance to
constraint and uniformity。
At the present day； （1880）； each of us is the terminal and peculiar
product of a vast elaboration of which the diverse stages occur in
this order but once； a plant unique of its species； a solitary
individual of superior and finer essence which； with its own inward
structure and its own inalienable type； can bear no other than its own
characteristic fruit。 Nothing could be more adverse to the interest
of the oak than to be tortured into bearing the apples of the apple
tree； nothing could be more adverse to the interests of the apple tree
than to be tortured into bearing acorns； nothing could be more opposed
to the interests of both oak and apple tree； also of other trees； than
to be pruned； shaped and twisted so as all to grow after a forced
model； delineated on paper according to the rigid and limited
imagination of a surveyor。 The least possible constraint is；
therefore； everybody's chief interest； if one particular restrictive
agency is established； it is that every one may be preserved by if
from other more powerful constraints； especially those which the
foreigner and evil…doer would impose。 Up to that point； and not
further； its intervention is beneficial； beyond that point； it becomes
one of the evils it is intended to forestall。 Such then； if the
common weal is to be looked after； the sole office of the State is；
1。 to prevent constraint and； therefore； never to use it except to
prevent worse constraints；
2。 to secure respect for each individual in his own physical and
moral domain； never to encroach on this except for that purpose and
then to withdraw immediately；
3。 to abstain from all indiscreet meddling； and yet more； as far as
is practicable； without any sacrifice of public security；
4。 to reduce old assessments； to exact only a minimum of subsidies
and services；
5。 to gradually limit even useful action；
6。 to set itself as few tasks as possible；
7。 to let each one have all the room possible and the maximum of
initiative；
8。 to slowly abandon monopolies；
9。 to refrain from competition with private parties；
10。 to rid itself of functions which these private parties can
fulfill equally well …
and we see that the limits assigned to the State by the public
interest （l'intérêt commun） correspond to those stipulated by duty and
justice。
VI。
Indirect common interest。 … This consists in the most economical and
most productive employment of spontaneous forces。 … Difference
between voluntary labor and forced labor。 … Sources of man's
spontaneous action。 Conditions of their energy； work and products。 …
Motives for leaving them under personal control。 … Extent of the
private domain。 … Individuals might voluntarily extend it。 … What is
left becomes the domain of the State。 … Obligatory functions of the
State。 … Optional functions of the State。
Let us now take into consideration； no longer the direct； but the
indirect interest of all。 Instead of considering individuals let us
concern ourselves with their works。 Let us regard human society as a
material and spiritual workshop； whose perfection consists in making
it as productive； economical； and as well furnished and managed as
possible 。 Even with this secondary and subordinate aim； the domain
of the State is scarcely to be less restricted： very few new functions
are to be attributed to it； nearly all the rest will be better
fulfilled by independent persons； or by natural or voluntary
associations。 …
Let us consider the man who works for his own benefit； the farmer； the
manufacturer； the merchant； and observe how attentive he is to his
business。 This is because his interest and pride are involved。 One
side his welfare and that of those around him is at stake； his
capital； his reputation； his social position and advancement； on the
other side； are poverty； ruin； social degradation； dependence；
bankruptcy a