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the metropolitan canon or by the abbé or prior； the patron of the
place； again； by the seignior whose ancestors had founded or endowed
the Church； in certain cases by the Pope； and； occasionally； by the
King or commune。 Powers were limited through this multiplicity and
inter…crossing of authorities。 Moreover； the； canon or curé being
once appointed he possessed guarantees； he could not be arbitrarily
dismissed； in most cases； his removal or suspension required a
previous trial according to prescribed formalities； accompanied with
an examination； pleadings； and arguments before the officialité or
ecclesiastical court。 He was； in fact； permanently placed； and very
generally his personal merit sufficed to keep him in his place。 …
For； if the highest positions were bestowed according to birth and
favor； the intermediate positions were reserved to correct habits and
attainments。 Many canons and vicars…general； and almost all the curés
in the towns were doctors of divinity or of canon law； while
ecclesiastical studies； very thorough； had occupied eight or nine
years of their youth。＇70＇ Although the method was out of date； much
was learned at the Sorbonne and St。 Sulpice； at the very least； one
became a good logician through prolonged and scientific intellectual
gymnastics。 〃My dear Abbé；〃 said Turgot； smiling； to Morellet； 〃it is
only you and I who have taken our degree who can reason closely。〃
Their theological drill； indeed； was about as valuable as our
philosophical drill； if it expanded the mind less； it supplied this
better with applicable concepts； less exciting； it was more fruitful。
In the Sorbonne of the nineteenth century； the studies consist of the
speculative systems of a few isolated； divergent intellects who have
exercised no authority over the multitude； while in the Sorbonne of
the eighteenth century； the studies consisted of the creed； morality；
discipline； history and canons of a Church which had already existed
seventeen centuries and which； comprising one hundred and fifty
millions of souls； still sways one…half of the civilized world。 … To
a theoretical education add practical education。 A curé and with
still more reason； a canon； an archdeacon； a bishop； was not a passing
stranger； endowed by the State； wearing a surplice； as little
belonging to his age through his ministry as through his dress； and
wholly confined to his spiritual functions： he managed the revenues of
his dotation； he granted leases； made repairs； built； and interested
himself in the probabilities of the crops； in the construction of a
highway or canal； while his experiences in these matters were equal to
those of any lay proprietor。 Moreover； being one of a small
proprietary corporation； that is to say； a chapter or local vestry；
and one of a great proprietary corporation of the diocese and Church
of France； he took part directly or indirectly in important temporal
affairs； in assemblies； in deliberations； in collective expenditures；
in the establishment of a local budget and of a general budget； and
hence； in public and administrative matters； his competence was
analogous and almost equal to that of a mayor； sub…delegate； farmer…
general or intendant。 In addition to this he was liberal： never has
the French clergy been more earnestly so； from the latest curés back
to the first archbishops。＇71＇ … Lastly； remark the distribution of the
clergy over the territory。 There was a curé or vicar in the smallest
of the forty thousand villages。 In thousands of small； poor； remote
communes； he was the only man who could readily read and write； none
other than he in many of the larger rural communes；＇72＇ except the
resident seignior and some man of the law or half…way schoolmaster；
was at all learned。＇73＇ Actually； for a man who had finished his
studies and knowing Latin； to consent； for six hundred francs or three
hundred francs a year； to live isolated； and a celibate； almost in
indigence； amongst rustics and the poor； he must be a priest； the
quality of his office makes him resigned to the discomforts of his
situation。 A preacher of the Word； a professor of morality； a
minister of Charity； a guide and dispenser of spiritual life； he
taught a theory of the world； at once consoling and self…denying；
which he enforced with a cult； and this cult was the only one adapted
to his flock； manifestly； the French； especially those devoted to
manual and hard labor； could not regard this world as ideal； except
through his formulas； history； the supreme judge； had on this point
rendered its verdict without appeal； no heresy； no schism； not the
Reformation nor Jansenism； had prevailed against hereditary faith；
through infinitely multiplied and deeply penetrating roots this faith
suited national customs； temperament； and peculiar social imagination
and sensibility。 Possessing the heart； the intellect； and even the
senses； through fixed； immemorial traditions and habits； it had become
an unconscious； almost corporeal necessity； and the Catholic orthodox
curé； in communion with the Pope； was about as indispensable to the
village as the public fountain； he also quenched thirst； the thirst of
the soul； without him； the inhabitants could find no drinkable water。
And； if we keep human weaknesses in mind； it may be said that
nobleness of character in the clergy corresponded with nobleness of
profession； in all points no one could dispute their capacity for
self…sacrifice； for they willingly suffered for what they believed to
be the truth。 If； in 1790； a number of priests took the oath to the
civil constitution of the clergy； it was with reservations； or because
they deemed the oath licit； but； after the dismissal of the bishops
and the Pope's disapprobation； many of them withdrew it at the risk of
their lives； so as not to fall into schism； they fell back into the
ranks and gave themselves up voluntarily to the brutality of the crowd
and the rigors of the law。 Moreover； and from the start；
notwithstanding threats and temptations； two…thirds of the clergy
would not take the oath； in the highest ranks； among the mundane
ecclesiastics whose skepticism and laxity were notorious； honor； in
default of faith； maintained the same spirit； nearly the whole of
them； great and small； had subordinated their interests； welfare and
security to the maintenance of their dignity or to scruples of
conscience。 They had allowed themselves to be stripped of everything；
they let themselves be exiled； imprisoned； tortured and made martyrs
of； like the Christians of the primitive church； through their
invincible meekness； they were going； like the primitive Christians；
to exhaust the rage of their executioners； wear out persecutions；
transform opinion and compel the admission； even with those who
survived in the eighteenth century； that they were true； deserving and
courageous men。
V。 The Bourgeoisie。
Where recruited。 … Difference between the functionary of the ancient
regime and the modern functionary。 … Appointments seen as Property。
… Guilds。 … Independence and security of office…holders。 … Their
ambitions are limited and satisfied。 … Fixed habits； seriousness and
integrity。 … Ambition to secure esteem。 … Intellectual culture。 …
Liberal ideas。 … Respectability and public zeal。 … Conduct of the
bourgeoisie in 1789…1791。
Below the nobles and the clergy； a third class of notables； the
bourgeoisie； almost entirely confined to the towns；＇74＇ verged on the
former classes through its upper circles； while its diverse groups；
ranging from the parliamentarian to the rich merchant or manufacturer；
comprised the remainder of those who were tolerably well educated； say
100 000 families； recruited on the same conditions as the bourgeoisie
of the present day： they were 〃bourgeois living nobly；〃 meaning by
this； living on their incomes； large manufacturers and traders；
engaged in liberal pursuits…lawyers； notaries； procureurs； physicians；
architects； engineers； artists； professors； and especially the
government officials； the latter； however； very numerous； differed
from ours in two essential points。 On the one hand； their office； as
nowadays with the notaries' étude； or a membership of the stock…board；
was personal property。 Their places； and many others； such as posts
in the judiciary； in the finances； in bailiwicks； in the Présidial； in
the Election；＇75＇ in the salt…department； in the customs； in the Mint；
in the department of forests and streams； in presidencies； in
councils； as procureurs du roi in various civil； administrative and
criminal courts； holding places in the treasury； auditors and
collectors of the various branches of the revenue … all of which
offices； and many others； had been alienated for more than a century
by the State in return for specified sums of ready money； thenceforth；
they fell into the hands of special purchasers； the title of each
possessor