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to the pope； and attending the elections of the pontiff； began to
dignify their own power with a title； by calling themselves cardinals；
and arrogated so great authority； that having excluded the people of
Rome from the election of pontiff； the appointment of a new pope was
scarcely ever made except from one of their own number： thus on the
death of Pascal； the cardinal of St。 Sabina was created pope by the
title of Eugenius II。 Italy having come into the hands of the French；
a change of form and order took place； the popes acquiring greater
temporal power； and the new authorities adopting the titles of count
and marquis； as that of duke had been introduced by Longinus； exarch
of Ravenna。 After the deaths of some pontiffs； Osporco； a Roman；
succeeded to the papacy； but on account of his unseemly appellation；
he took the name of Sergius； and this was the origin of that change of
names which the popes adopt upon their election to the pontificate。
In the meantime； the Emperor Charles died and was succeeded by Lewis
（the Pious； after whose death so many disputes arose among his sons；
that at the time of his grandchildren； the house of France lost the
empire； which then came to the Germans； the first German emperor being
called Arnolfus。 Nor did the Carlovingian family lose the empire only；
their discords also occasioned them the loss of Italy； for the
Lombards； gathering strength； offended the pope and the Romans； and
Arnolfo； not knowing where to seek relief； was compelled to create
Berengarius； duke of Fruili； king of Italy。 These events induced the
Huns； who occupied Pannonia； to assail Italy； but； in an engagement
with Berengarius； they were compelled to return to Pannonia； which had
from them been named Hungary。
Romano was at this time emperor of Greece； having； while prefect of
the army； dethroned Constantine； and as Puglia and Calabria； which； as
before observed； were parts of the Greek empire； had revolted； he gave
permission to the Saracans to occupy them； and they having taken
possession of these provinces； besieged Rome。 The Romans； Berengarius
being then engaged in defending himself against the Huns； appointed
Alberic； duke of Tuscany； their leader。 By his valor Rome was saved
from the Saracens； who； withdrawing from the siege； erected a fortress
upon Mount Gargano； by means of which they governed Puglia and
Calabria； and harassed the whole country。 Thus Italy was in those
times very grievously afflicted； being in constant warfare with the
Huns in the direction of the Alps； and； on the Neapolitan side；
suffering from the inroads of the Saracens。 This state of things
continued many years； occupying the reigns of three Berengarii； who
succeeded each other； and during this time the pope and the church
were greatly disturbed； the impotence of the eastern； and the disunion
which prevailed among the western princes； leaving them without
defense。 The city of Genoa； with all her territory upon the rivers；
having been overrun by the Saracens； an impulse was thus given to the
rising greatness of Pisa； in which city multitudes took refuge who had
been driven out of their own country。 These events occurred in the
year 931； when Otho； duke of Saxony； the son of Henry and Matilda； a
man of great prudence and reputation； being made emperor； the pope
Agapito； begged that he would come into Italy and relieve him from the
tyranny of the Berengarii。
The States of Italy were governed in this manner： Lombardy was under
Berengarius III。 and Alfred his son； Tuscany and Romagna were governed
by a deputy of the western emperor； Puglia and Calabria were partly
under the Greek emperor； and partly under the Saracens； in Rome two
consuls were annually chosen from the nobility； who governed her
according to ancient custom； to these was added a prefect； who
dispensed justice among the people； and there was a council of twelve；
who each year appointed rectors for the places subject to them。 The
popes had more or less authority in Rome and the rest of Italy； in
proportion as they were favorites of the emperor or of the most
powerful states。 The Emperor Otho came into Italy； took the kingdom
from the Berengarii； in which they had reigned fifty…five years； and
reinstated the pontiff in his dignity。 He had a son and a nephew； each
named Otho； who； one after the other； succeeded to the empire。 In the
reign of Otho III。； Pope Gregory V。 was expelled by the Romans；
whereupon the emperor came into Italy and replaced him； and the pope；
to revenge himself on the Romans； took from them the right to create
an emperor； and gave it to three princes and three bishops of Germany；
the princes of Brandenburg； Palatine； and Saxony； and the bishops of
Magonza； Treveri； and Colonia。 This occurred in the year 1002。 After
the death of Otho III。 the electors created Henry； duke of Bavaria；
emperor； who at the end of twelve years was crowned by Pope Stephen
VIII。 Henry and his wife Simeonda were persons of very holy life； as
is seen by the many temples built and endowed by them； of which the
church of St。 Miniato； near Florence； is one。 Henry died in 1024； and
was succeeded by Conrad of Suabia； and the latter by Henry II。； who
came to Rome； and as there was a schism in the church of three popes；
he set them all aside； and caused the election of Clement II。； by whom
he was crowned emperor。
CHAPTER IV
Nicholas II。 commits the election of the pope to the cardinals
First example of a prince deprived of his dominions by the pope
Guelphs and GhibellinesEstablishment of the kingdom of Naples
Pope Urban II。 goes to FranceThe first crusadeNew orders of
knighthoodSaladin takes from the Christians their possessions in
the eastDeath of the Countess MatildaCharacter of Frederick
BarbarossaSchismFrederick creates an anti…popeBuilding of
Alexandria in PugliaDisgraceful conditions imposed by the pope
upon Henry； king of EnglandReconciliation of Frederick with the
popeThe kingdom of Naples passes to the GermansOrders of St。
Dominic and St。 Francis。
Italy was at this time governed partly by the people； some districts
by their own princes； and others by the deputies of the emperor。 The
highest in authority； and to whom the others referred； was called the
chancellor。 Of the princes； the most powerful were Godfred and the
Countess Matilda his wife； who was daughter of Beatrice； the sister of
Henry II。 She and her husband possessed Lucca； Parma； Reggio； Mantua；
and the whole of what is now called THE PATRIMONY OF THE CHURCH。 The
ambition of the Roman people caused many wars between them and the
pontiffs； whose authority had previously been used to free them from
the emperors； but when they had taken the government of the city to
themselves； and regulated it according to their own pleasure； they at
once became at enmity with the popes； who received far more injuries
from them than from any Christian potentate。 And while the popes
caused all the west to tremble with their censures； the people of Rome
were in open rebellion against them； nor had they or the popes any
other purpose； but to deprive each other of reputation and authority。
Nicholas II。 now attained the papacy； and as Gregory V。 had taken from
the Romans the right to create an emperor； he in the same manner
determined to deprive them of their share in the election of the pope；
and confined the creation to the cardinals alone。 Nor did this satisfy
him； for； having agreed with the princes who governed Calabria and
Puglia； with methods which we shall presently relate； he compelled the
officers whom the Romans appointed to their different jurisdictions；
to render obedience to him； and some of them he even deprived of their
offices。 After the death of Nicholas； there was a schism in the
church； the clergy of Lombardy refused obedience to Alexander II。；
created at Rome； and elected Cadolo of Parma anti…pope； and Henry； who
hated the power of the pontiffs； gave Alexander to understand that he
must renounce the pontificate； and ordered the cardinals to go into
Germany to appoint a new pope。 He was the first who felt the
importance of spiritual weapons； for the pope called a council at
Rome； and deprived Henry of both the empire and the kingdom。 Some of
the people of Italy took the part of the pope； others of Henry； and
hence arose the factions of the Guelphs and the Ghibellines； that
Italy； relieved from the inundations of barbarians； might be
distracted with intestine strife。 Henry； being excommunicated； was
compelled by his people to come into Italy； and fall barefooted upon
his knees before the pope； and ask his pardon。 This occurred in the
year 1082。 Nevertheless； there shortly afterward arose new discords
between the pope and Henry； upon which the pope again excommunicated
him； and the emperor sent his son； also named Henry； with an army to
Rome； and he； with the assistance of the Romans； who hated the