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maintains）； but it is so in quite a different manner from
agriculture and manufactures。 These latter actually produce goods；
commerce only brings about the exchange of the goods between
agriculturists and manufacturers； between producers and consumers。
From this it follows that commerce must be regulated according to
the interests and wants of agriculture and manufactures； not vice
vers狻�
But the school has exactly reversed this last dictum by
adopting as a favourite expression the saying of old Gourney；
'Laissez faire； laissez passer；' an expression which sounds no less
agreeably to robbers； cheats； and thieves than to the merchant； and
is on that account rather doubtful as a maxim。 This perversity of
surrendering the interests of manufactures and agriculture to the
demands of commerce； without reservation； is a natural consequence
of that theory which everywhere merely takes into consideration
present values； but nowhere the powers that produce them； and
regards the whole world as but one indivisibie republic of
merchants。 The school does not discern that the merchant may be
accomplishing his purpose （viz。 gain of values by exchange） at the
expense of the agriculturists and manufacturers； at the expense of
the nation's productive powers； and indeed of its independence。 It
is all the same to him； and according to the character of his
business and occupation； he need not trouble himself much
respecting the manner in which the goods imported or exported by
him act on the morality； the prosperity； or the power of the
nation。 He imports poisons as readily as medicines。 He enervates
whole nations through opium and spirituous liquors。 Whether he by
his importations and smugglings brings occupation and sustenance to
hundreds of thousands； or whether they are thereby reduced to
beggary； does not signify to him as a man of business； if only his
own balance is increased thereby。 Then if those who have been
reduced to want bread seek to escape the misery in their fatherland
by emigrating； he can still obtain profit by the business of
arranging their emigration。 In the time of war he provides the
enemy with arms and ammunition。 He would； if it were possible； sell
fields and meadows to foreign countries； and when he had sold the
last bit of land would place himself on board his ship and export
himself。
It is therefore evident that the interest of individual
merchants and the interest of the commerce of a whole nation are
widely different things。 In this sense Montesquieu has well said；
'If the State imposes restrictions on the individual merchant； it
does so in the interest of commerce； and his trade is nowhere more
restricted than in free and rich nations； and nowhere less so than
in nations governed by despots。'（1*） Commerce emanates from
manufactures and agriculture； and no nation which has not brought
within its own borders both these main branches of production to a
high state of development can attain （in our days） to any
considerable amount of internal and external commerce。 In former
times there certainly existed separate cities or leagues of cities
which were enabled by means of foreign manufacturers and foreign
agriculturists to carry on a large exchange trade； but since the
great agricultural manufacturing commercial states have sprung up；
we can no longer think of originating a mere exchange trade such as
the Hanse Towns possessed。 In any case such a trade is of so
precarious a character； that it hardly deserves consideration in
comparison with that which is based on the nation's own production。
The most important objects of internal commerce are articles of
food； salt； fuel； and building material； clothing materials； then
agricultural and manufacturing utensils and implements； and the raw
materials of agricultural and mining production which are necessary
for manufactures。 The extent of this internal inter change is
beyond all comparison greater in a nation in which manufacturing
industry has attained a high stage of development than in a merely
agricultural nation。 At times in the latter the agriculturist lives
chiefly on his own productions。 From want of much demand for
various products and lack of means of transport； he is obliged to
produce for himself all his requirements without regard to what his
land is more specially fitted to produce； from want of means of
exchange he must manufacture himself the greater part of the
manufactured articles which he requires。 Fuel； building materials；
provisions； and mineral products can find only a very limited
market because of the absence of improved means of transport； and
hence cannot serve as articles for a distant trade。
Owing to the limited market and the limited demand for such
products； no inducement for storing them or for the accumulation of
capital exists。 Hence the capital devoted by mere agricultural
nations to internal commerce is almost nil； hence all articles of
production； which depend especially on good or bad weather； are
subject to extraordinary fluctuation in prices； hence the danger of
scarcity and famine is therefore greater the more any nation
restricts itself to agriculture。
The internal commerce of a nation mainly arises in consequence
of and in proportion to the activity of its internal manufactures；
of the improved means of transport called forth by them； and of the
increase of population； and attains an importance which is ten to
twenty fold greater than the internal trade of a merely
agricultural nation； and five to ten fold that of the most
flourishing foreign trade。 If anyone will compare the internal
commerce of England with that of Poland or Spain； he will find this
observation confirmed。
The foreign commerce of agricultural nations of the temperate
zone； so long as it is limited to provisions and raw materials；
cannot attain to importance。
Firstly； because the exports of the agricultural nation are
directed to a few manufacturing nations； which themselves carry on
agriculture； and which indeed； because of their manufactures and
their extended commerce； carry it on on a much more perfect system
than the mere agricultural nation； that export trade is therefore
neither certain nor uniform。 The trade in mere products is always
a matter of extraordinary speculation； whose benefits fall mostly
to the speculating merchants； but not to the agriculturists or to
the productive power of the agricultural nation。
Secondly； because the exchange of agricultural products for
foreign manufactured goods is liable to be greatly interrupted by
the commercial restrictions of foreign states and by wars。
Thirdly； because the export of mere products chiefly benefits
countries which are situated near sea coasts and the banks of
navigable rivers； and does not benefit the inland territory； which
constitutes the greater part of the territory of the agricultural
nation。
Fourthly and finally； because the foreign manufacturing nation
may find it to its interest to procure its means of subsistence and
raw materials from other countries and newly formed colonies。
Thus the export of German wool to England is diminished by
importations into England from Australia； the exports of French and
German wines to England by importations from Spain； Portugal；
Sicily； the Spanish and Portuguese islands； and from the Cape； the
exports of Prussian timber by importations from Canada。
In fact； preparations have already been made to supply England
with cotton chiefly from the East Indies。 If the English succeed in
restoring the old commercial route； if the new State of Texas
becomes strong； if civilisation in Syria and Egypt； in Mexico and
the South American states progresses； the cotton planters of the
United States will also begin to perceive that their own internal
market will afford them the safest； most uniform； and constant
demand。
In temperate climates； by far the largest part of a nation's
foreign commerce originates in its internal manufactures； and can
only be maintained and augmented by means of its own manufacturing
power。
Those nations only which produce all kinds of manufactured
goods at the cheapest prices； can have commercial connections with
the people of all climates and of every degree of civilisation； can
supply all requirements； or if they cease； create new ones； can
take in exchange every kind of raw