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a Leone； where such customs have prevailed； 〃except among the Mandingoes and Suzees； few kings are natives of the countries they govern。 So different are their ideas from ours； that very few are solicitous of the honour； and competition is very seldom heard of。〃
The Mikados of Japan seem early to have resorted to the expedient of transferring the honours and burdens of supreme power to their infant children； and the rise of the Tycoons； long the temporal sovereigns of the country； is traced to the abdication of a certain Mikado in favour of his three…year…old son。 The sovereignty having been wrested by a usurper from the infant prince； the cause of the Mikado was championed by Yoritomo； a man of spirit and conduct； who overthrew the usurper and restored to the Mikado the shadow； while he retained for himself the substance； of power。 He bequeathed to his descendants the dignity he had won； and thus became the founder of the line of Tycoons。 Down to the latter half of the sixteenth century the Tycoons were active and efficient rulers； but the same fate overtook them which had befallen the Mikados。 Immeshed in the same inextricable web of custom and law； they degenerated into mere puppets； hardly stirring from their palaces and occupied in a perpetual round of empty ceremonies； while the real business of government was managed by the council of state。 In Tonquin the monarchy ran a similar course。 Living like his predecessors in effeminacy and sloth； the king was driven from the throne by an ambitious adventurer named Mack； who from a fisherman had risen to be Grand Mandarin。 But the king's brother Tring put down the usurper and restored the king； retaining； however； for himself and his descendants the dignity of general of all the forces。 Thenceforward the kings； though invested with the title and pomp of sovereignty； ceased to govern。 While they lived secluded in their palaces； all real political power was wielded by the hereditary generals。
In Mangaia； a Polynesian island； religious and civil authority were lodged in separate hands； spiritual functions being discharged by a line of hereditary kings； while the temporal government was entrusted from time to time to a victorious war…chief； whose investiture； however； had to be completed by the king。 Similarly in Tonga； besides the civil king whose right to the throne was partly hereditary and partly derived from his warlike reputation and the number of his fighting men； there was a great divine chief who ranked above the king and the other chiefs in virtue of his supposed descent from one of the chief gods。 Once a year the first…fruits of the ground were offered to him at a solemn ceremony； and it was believed that if these offerings were not made the vengeance of the gods would fall in a signal manner on the people。 Peculiar forms of speech； such as were applied to no one else； were used in speaking of him； and everything that he chanced to touch became sacred or tabooed。 When he and the king met； the monarch had to sit down on the ground in token of respect until his holiness had passed by。 Yet though he enjoyed the highest veneration by reason of his divine origin； this sacred personage possessed no political authority； and if he ventured to meddle with affairs of state it was at the risk of receiving a rebuff from the king； to whom the real power belonged； and who finally succeeded in ridding himself of his spiritual rival。
In some parts of Western Africa two kings reign side by side； a fetish or religious king and a civil king； but the fetish king is really supreme。 He controls the weather and so forth； and can put a stop to everything。 When he lays his red staff on the ground； no one may pass that way。 This division of power between a sacred and a secular ruler is to be met with wherever the true negro culture has been left unmolested； but where the negro form of society has been disturbed； as in Dahomey and Ashantee； there is a tendency to consolidate the two powers in a single king。
In some parts of the East Indian island of Timor we meet with a partition of power like that which is represented by the civil king and the fetish king of Western Africa。 Some of the Timorese tribes recognise two rajahs； the ordinary or civil rajah； who governs the people； and the fetish or taboo rajah； who is charged with the control of everything that concerns the earth and its products。 This latter ruler has the right of declaring anything taboo； his permission must be obtained before new land may be brought under cultivation； and he must perform certain necessary ceremonies when the work is being carried out。 If drought or blight threatens the crops； his help is invoked to save them。 Though he ranks below the civil rajah； he exercises a momentous influence on the course of events； for his secular colleague is bound to consult him in all important matters。 In some of the neighbouring islands； such as Rotti and eastern Flores； a spiritual ruler of the same sort is recognised under various native names； which all mean 〃lord of the ground。〃 Similarly in the Mekeo district of British New Guinea there is a double chieftainship。 The people are divided into two groups according to families； and each of the groups has its chief。 One of the two is the war chief； the other is the taboo chief。 The office of the latter is hereditary； his duty is to impose a taboo on any of the crops； such as the coco…nuts and areca nuts； whenever he thinks it desirable to prohibit their use。 In his office we may perhaps detect the beginning of a priestly dynasty； but as yet his functions appear to be more magical than religious； being concerned with the control of the harvests rather than with the propitiation of higher powers。
Chapter 18。 The Perils of the Soul。
1。 The Soul as a Mannikin
THE FOREGOING examples have taught us that the office of a sacred king or priest is often hedged in by a series of burdensome restrictions or taboos； of which a principal purpose appears to be to preserve the life of the divine man for the good of his people。 But if the object of the taboos is to save his life； the question arises； How is their observance supposed to effect this end？ To understand this we must know the nature of the danger which threatens the king's life； and which it is the intention of these curious restrictions to guard against。 We must； therefore； ask： What does early man understand by death？ To what causes does he attribute it？ And how does he think it may be guarded against？
As the savage commonly explains the processes of inanimate nature by supposing that they are produced by living beings working in or behind the phenomena； so he explains the phenomena of life itself。 If an animal lives and moves； it can only be； he thinks； because there is a little animal inside which moves it： if a man lives and moves； it can only be because he has a little man or animal inside who moves him。 The animal inside the animal； the man inside the man； is the soul。 And as the activity of an animal or man is explained by the presence of the soul； so the repose of sleep or death is explained by its absence； sleep or trance being the temporary； death being the permanent absence of the soul。 Hence if death be the permanent absence of the soul； the way to guard against it is either to prevent the soul from leaving the body； or； if it does depart； to ensure that it shall return。 The precautions adopted by savages to secure one or other of these ends take the form of certain prohibitions or taboos； which are nothing but rules intended to ensure either the continued presence or the return of the soul。 In short； they are life…preservers or life…guards。 These general statements will now be illustrated by examples。
Addressing some Australian blacks； a European missionary said； I am not one； as you think； but two。 Upon this they laughed。 You may laugh as much as you like； continued the missionary； I tell you that I am two in one； this great body that you see is one； within that there is another little one which is not visible。 The great body dies； and is buried； but the little body flies away when the great one dies。 To this some of the blacks replied； Yes； yes。 We also are two； we also have a little body within the breast。 On being asked where the little body went after death； some said it went behind the bush； others said it went into the sea； and some said they did not know。 The Hurons thought that the soul had a head and body； arms and legs； in short； that it was a complete little model of the man himself。 The Esquimaux believe that the soul exhibits the same shape as the body it belongs to； but is of a more subtle and ethereal nature。 According to the Nootkas the soul has the shape of a tiny man； its seat is the crown of the head。 So long as it stands erect； its owner is hale and hearty； but when from any cause it loses its upright position； he loses his senses。 Among the Indian tribes of the Lower Fraser River； man is held to have four souls； of which the principal one has the form of a mannikin； while the other three are shadows of it。 The Malays conceive the human soul as a little man； mostly invisible and of the bigness of a thumb； who corresponds exactly in shape； proportion； and even in complexion to the man in whose