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ing villages or to a whole parish。 In some parts of the Highlands of Scotland the rule was that all householders who dwelt within the two nearest running streams should put out their lights and fires on the day appointed。 Usually the need…fire was made in the open air； but in some parts of Serbia it was kindled in a dark room； sometimes the place was a cross…way or a hollow in a road。 In the Highlands of Scotland the proper places for performing the rite seem to have been knolls or small islands in rivers。
The regular method of producing the need…fire was by the friction of two pieces of wood； it might not be struck by flint and steel。 Very exceptionally among some South Slavs we read of a practice of kindling a need…fire by striking a piece of iron on an anvil。 Where the wood to be employed is specified； it is generally said to be oak； but on the Lower Rhine the fire was kindled by the friction of oak…wood or fir…wood。 In Slavonic countries we hear of poplar； pear； and cornel wood being used for the purpose。 Often the material is simply described as two pieces of dry wood。 Sometimes nine different kinds of wood were deemed necessary； but rather perhaps to be burned in the bonfire than to be rubbed together for the production of the need…fire。 The particular mode of kindling the need…fire varied in different districts； a very common one was this。 Two poles were driven into the ground about a foot and a half from each other。 Each pole had in the side facing the other a socket into which a smooth cross…piece or roller was fitted。 The sockets were stuffed with linen； and the two ends of the roller were rammed tightly into the sockets。 To make it more inflammable the roller was often coated with tar。 A rope was then wound round the roller； and the free ends at both sides were gripped by two or more persons； who by pulling the rope to and fro caused the roller to revolve rapidly； till through the friction the linen in the sockets took fire。 The sparks were immediately caught in tow or oakum and waved about in a circle until they burst into a bright glow； when straw was applied to it； and the blazing straw used to kindle the fuel that had been stacked to make the bonfire。 Often a wheel； sometimes a cart…wheel or even a spinning…wheel； formed part of the mechanism； in Aberdeenshire it was called the muckle wheel； in the island of Mull the wheel was turned from east to west over nine spindles of oak…wood。 Sometimes we are merely told that two wooden planks were rubbed together。 Sometimes it was prescribed that the cart…wheel used for fire…making and the axle on which it turned should both be new。 Similarly it was said that the rope which turned the roller should be new； if possible it should be woven of strands taken from a gallows rope with which people had been hanged； but this was a counsel of perfection rather than a strict necessity。
Various rules were also laid down as to the kind of persons who might or should make the need…fire。 Sometimes it was said that the two persons who pulled the rope which twirled the roller should always be brothers or at least bear the same baptismal name； sometimes it was deemed sufficient if they were both chaste young men。 In some villages of Brunswick people thought that if everybody who lent a hand in kindling the need…fire did not bear the same Christian name； they would labour in vain。 In Silesia the tree employed to produce the need…fire used to be felled by a pair of twin brothers。 In the western islands of Scotland the fire was kindled by eighty…one married men； who rubbed two great planks against each other； working in relays of nine； in North Uist the nine times nine who made the fire were all first…begotten sons； but we are not told whether they were married or single。 Among the Serbians the need…fire is sometimes kindled by a boy and girl between eleven and fourteen years of age； who work stark naked in a dark room； sometimes it is made by an old man and an old woman also in the dark。 In Bulgaria； too； the makers of need…fire strip themselves of their clothes； in Caithness they divested themselves of all kinds of metal。 If after long rubbing of the wood no fire was elicited they concluded that some fire must still be burning in the village； so a strict search was made from house to house； any fire that might be found was put out； and the negligent householder punished or upbraided； indeed a heavy fine might be inflicted on him。
When the need…fire was at last kindled； the bonfire was lit from it； and as soon as the blaze had somewhat died down； the sick animals were driven over the glowing embers； sometimes in a regular order of precedence； first the pigs； next the cows； and last of all the horses。 Sometimes they were driven twice or thrice through the smoke and flames； so that occasionally some of them were scorched to death。 As soon as all the beasts were through； the young folk would rush wildly at the ashes and cinders； sprinkling and blackening each other with them； those who were most blackened would march in triumph behind the cattle into the village and would not wash themselves for a long time。 From the bonfire people carried live embers home and used them to rekindle the fires in their houses。 These brands； after being extinguished in water； they sometimes put in the managers at which the cattle fed； and kept them there for a while。 Ashes from the need…fire were also strewed on the fields to protect the crops against vermin； sometimes they were taken home to be employed as remedies in sickness； being sprinkled on the ailing part or mixed in water and drunk by the patient。 In the western islands of Scotland and on the adjoining mainland； as soon as the fire on the domestic hearth had been rekindled from the need…fire a pot full of water was set on it； and the water thus heated was afterwards sprinkled upon the people infected with the plague or upon the cattle that were tainted by the murrain。 Special virtue was attributed to the smoke of the bonfire； in Sweden fruit…trees and nets were fumigated with it； in order that the trees might bear fruit and the nets catch fish。 In the Highlands of Scotland the need…fire was accounted a sovereign remedy for witchcraft。 In the island of Mull； when the fire was kindled as a cure for the murrain； we hear of the rite being accompanied by the sacrifice of a sick heifer； which was cut in pieces and burnt。 Slavonian and Bulgarian peasants conceive cattle…plague as a foul fiend or vampyre which can be kept at bay by interposing a barrier of fire between it and the herds。 A similar conception may perhaps have originally everywhere underlain the use of the need…fire as a remedy for the murrain。 It appears that in some parts of Germany the people did not wait for an outbreak of cattleplague； but； taking time by the forelock； kindled a need…fire annually to prevent the calamity。 Similarly in Poland the peasants are said to kindle fires in the village streets every year on St。 Rochus's day and to drive the cattle thrice through them in order to protect the beasts against the murrain。 We have seen that in the Hebrides the cattle were in like manner driven annually round the Beltane fires for the same purpose。 In some cantons of Switzerland children still kindle a need…fire by the friction of wood for the sake of dispelling a mist。
Chapter 63。 The Interpretation of the Fire…Festivals。
1。 On the Fire…festivals in general
THE FOREGOING survey of the popular fire…festivals of Europe suggests some general observations。 In the first place we can hardly help being struck by the resemblance which the ceremonies bear to each other； at whatever time of the year and in whatever part of Europe they are celebrated。 The custom of kindling great bonfires； leaping over them； and driving cattle through or round them would seem to have been practically universal throughout Europe； and the same may be said of the processions or races with blazing torches round fields； orchards； pastures； or cattle…stalls。 Less widespread are the customs of hurling lighted discs into the air and trundling a burning wheel down hill。 The ceremonial of the Yule log is distinguished from that of the other fire…festivals by the privacy and domesticity which characterise it； but this distinction may well be due simply to the rough weather of midwinter； which is apt not only to render a public assembly in the open air disagreeable； but also at any moment to defeat the object of the assembly by extinguishing the all…important fire under a downpour of rain or a fall of snow。 Apart from these local or seasonal differences； the general resemblance between the fire…festivals at all times of the year and in all places is tolerably close。 And as the ceremonies themselves resemble each other； so do the benefits which the people expect to reap from them。 Whether applied in the form of bonfires blazing at fixed points； or of torches carried about from place to place； or of embers and ashes taken from the smouldering heap of fuel； the fire is believed to promote the growth of the crops and the welfare of man and beast； either positively by stimulating them； or negatively by averting the dangers and calamities which threaten them from such causes as thunder and lightning； conflagration； blight； mildew