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mpanied with the eating of a sacred substance； since the perjured person cannot possibly escape the avenging god whom he has taken into his body and assimilated。 This kind of sacrament is of the Aino or expiatory type； since it is meant to atone to the species for the possible ill…usage of individuals。 An expiation； similar in principle but different in details； is offered by the Kalmucks to the sheep； whose flesh is one of their staple foods。 Rich Kalmucks are in the habit of consecrating a white ram under the title of the ram of heaven or the ram of the spirit。 The animal is never shorn and never sold； but when it grows old and its owner wishes to consecrate a new one； the old ram must be killed and eaten at a feast to which the neighbours are invited。 On a lucky day； generally in autumn when the sheep are fat； a sorcerer kills the old ram； after sprinkling it with milk。 Its flesh is eaten； the skeleton； with a portion of the fat； is burned on a turf altar； and the skin； with the head and feet； is hung up。
An example of a sacrament of the Egyptian type is furnished by the Todas； a pastoral people of Southern India； who subsist largely upon the milk of their buffaloes。 Amongst them the buffalo is to a certain degree held sacred and is treated with great kindness； even with a degree of adoration； by the people。 They never eat the flesh of the cow buffalo； and as a rule abstain from the flesh of the male。 But to the latter rule there is a single exception。 Once a year all the adult males of the village join in the ceremony of killing and eating a very young male calfseemingly under a month old。 They take the animal into the dark recesses of the village wood； where it is killed with a club made from the sacred tree of the Todas （the Millingtonia）。 A sacred fire having been made by the rubbing of sticks； the flesh of the calf is roasted on the embers of certain trees； and is eaten by the men alone； women being excluded from the assembly。 This is the only occasion on which the Todas eat buffalo flesh。 The Madi or Moru tribe of Central Africa； whose chief wealth is their cattle； though they also practise agriculture； appear to kill a lamb sacramentally on certain solemn occasions。 The custom is thus described by Dr。 Felkin： A remarkable custom is observed at stated timesonce a year； I am led to believe。 I have not been able to ascertain what exact meaning is attached to it。 It appears； however； to relieve the people's minds； for beforehand they evince much sadness； and seem very joyful when the ceremony is duly accomplished。 The following is what takes place： A large concourse of people of all ages assemble； and sit down round a circle of stones； which is erected by the side of a road （really a narrow path）。 A very choice lamb is then fetched by a boy； who leads it four times round the assembled people。 As it passes they pluck off little bits of its fleece and place them in their hair； or on to some other part of their body。 The lamb is then led up to the stones； and there killed by a man belonging to a kind of priestly order； who takes some of the blood and sprinkles it four times over the people。 He then applies it individually。 On the children he makes a small ring of blood over the lower end of the breast bone； on women and girls he makes a mark above the breasts； and the men he touches on each shoulder。 He then proceeds to explain the ceremony； and to exhort the people to show kindness 。 When this discourse； which is at times of great length； is over； the people rise； each places a leaf on or by the circle of stones； and then they depart with signs of great joy。 The lamb's skull is hung on a tree near the stones； and its flesh is eaten by the poor。 This ceremony is observed on a small scale at other times。 If a family is in any great trouble； through illness or bereavement； their friends and neighbours come together and a lamb is killed； this is thought to avert further evil。 The same custom prevails at the grave of departed friends； and also on joyful occasions； such as the return of a son home after a very prolonged absence。 The sorrow thus manifested by the people at the annual slaughter of the lamb seems to show that the lamb slain is a sacred or divine animal； whose death is mourned by his worshippers； just as the death of the sacred buzzard was mourned by the Californians and the death of the Theban ram by the Egyptians。 The smearing each of the worshippers with the blood of the lamb is a form of communion with the divinity； the vehicle of the divine life is applied externally instead of being taken internally； as when the blood is drunk or the flesh eaten。
2。 Processions with Sacred Animals
THE FORM of communion in which the sacred animal is taken from house to house； that all may enjoy a share of its divine influence； has been exemplified by the Gilyak custom of promenading the bear through the village before it is slain。 A similar form of communion with the sacred snake is observed by a Snake tribe in the Punjaub。 Once a year in the month of September the snake is worshipped by all castes and religions for nine days only。 At the end of August the Mirasans； especially those of the Snake tribe； make a snake of dough which they paint black and red； and place on a winnowing basket。 This basket they carry round the village； and on entering any house they say： God be with you all！ May every ill be far！ May our patron's （Gugga's） word thrive！ Then they present the basket with the snake； saying： A small cake of flour： a little bit of butter： if you obey the snake； you and yours shall thrive！ Strictly speaking； a cake and butter should be given； but it is seldom done。 Every one； however； gives something； generally a handful of dough or some corn。 In houses where there is a new bride or whence a bride has gone； or where a son has been born； it is usual to give a rupee and a quarter； or some cloth。 Sometimes the bearers of the snake also sing：
Give the snake a piece of cloth； and he will send a lively bride！
When every house has been thus visited； the dough snake is buried and a small grave is erected over it。 Thither during the nine days of September the women come to worship。 They bring a basin of curds； a small portion of which they offer at the snake's grave； kneeling on the ground and touching the earth with their foreheads。 Then they go home and divide the rest of the curds among the children。 Here the dough snake is clearly a substitute for a real snake。 Indeed； in districts where snakes abound the worship is offered； not at the grave of the dough snake； but in the jungles where snakes are known to be。 Besides this yearly worship； performed by all the people； the members of the Snake tribe worship in the same way every morning after a new moon。 The Snake tribe is not uncommon in the Punjaub。 Members of it will not kill a snake； and they say that its bite does not hurt them。 If they find a dead snake； they put clothes on it and give it a regular funeral。
Ceremonies closely analogous to this Indian worship of the snake have survived in Europe into recent times； and doubtless date from a very primitive paganism。 The best…known example is the hunting of the wren。 By many European peoplesthe ancient Greeks and Romans； the modern Italians； Spaniards； French； Germans； Dutch； Danes； Swedes； English； and Welshthe wren has been designated the king； the little king； the king of birds； the hedge king； and so forth； and has been reckoned amongst those birds which it is extremely unlucky to kill。 In England it is supposed that if any one kills a wren or harries its nest； he will infallibly break a bone or meet with some dreadful misfortune within the year； sometimes it is thought that the cows will give bloody milk。 In Scotland the wren is called the Lady of Heaven's hen； and boys say：
Malisons； malisons； mair than ten； That harry the Ladye of Heaven's hen！
At Saint Donan； in Brittany； people believe that if children touch the young wrens in the nest； they will suffer from the fire of St。 Lawrence； that is； from pimples on the face； legs； and so on。 In other parts of France it is thought that if a person kills a wren or harries its nest； his house will be struck by lightning； or that the fingers with which he did the deed will shrivel up and drop off； or at least be maimed； or that his cattle will suffer in their feet。
Notwithstanding such beliefs； the custom of annually killing the wren has prevailed widely both in this country and in France。 In the Isle of Man down to the eighteenth century the custom was observed on Christmas Eve； or rather Christmas morning。 On the twenty…fourth of December； towards evening； all the servants got a holiday； they did not go to bed all night； but rambled about till the bells rang in all the churches at midnight。 When prayers were over； they went to hunt the wren； and having found one of these birds they killed it and fastened it to the top of a long pole with its wings extended。 Thus they carried it in procession to every house chanting the following rhyme：
We hunted the wren for Robin the Bobbin； We hunted the wren for Jack of the Can； We hunted the wren for Robin the Bobbin； We hunted the wren for every one。
When they had gone from house to house and collected all the money they