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Bordeaux； says Arthur Young； as richer and doing more business than
any city in England except London； 。 。 。 of late years the progress
of maritime commerce has been more rapid in France than even in
England。〃＇5＇ According to an administrator of the day； if the taxes on
the consumption of products daily increase the revenue； this is
because the industry since 1774 has developed a number of new
products＇6＇。 And this progress is regular and constant。 〃We may
calculate；〃 says Necker in 1781； 〃on an increase of two millions a
year on all the duties on consumption。〃 In this great exertion
of innovation； labor and engineering； Paris； constantly growing； is
the central workshop。 It enjoys； to a much greater extent than today；
the monopoly of all works of intelligence and taste； books； pictures；
engravings； statues； jewelry； toilet details； carriages； furniture；
articles of fashion and rarity； whatever affords pleasure and
ornamentation for an elegant worldly society； all Europe is supplied
by it。 In 1774 its trade in books is estimated at 45 millions； and
that of London at only one…quarter of that sum＇7＇。 Upon the profits
many immense and even more numerous moderate fortunes were built up；
and these now became available for investment。 In fact； we see
the noblest hands stretching out to receive them； princes of the
blood； provincial assemblies； assemblies of the clergy； and； at the
head of all； the king； who； the most needy； borrows at ten percent and
is always in search of additional lenders。 Already under Fleury； the
debt has augmented to 18 millions in interests； and during the Seven
years' War； to 34 millions。 Under Louis XVI。； M。 Necker borrows a
capital of 530 millions； M。 Joly de Fleury； 300 millions； M。 de
Calonne； 800 millions； in all 1630 millions over a period of ten
years。 The interest of the public debt； only 45 millions in 1755；
reaches 106 millions in 1776 and amounts to 206 millions in 1789＇8＇。
What creditors which these few figures tell us about ！ As the Third…
Estate ； it must be noted； is the sole class making and saving money；
nearly all these creditors belong it。 Thousands of others must be
added to these。 In the first place； the financiers who make advances
to the government； advances that are indispensable； because； from time
immemorial； it has eaten its corn on the blade； so the present year is
always gnawing into the product of coming years； there are 80 millions
of advances in 1759； and 170 millions in 1783。 In the second place
there are so many suppliers； large and small； who； on all parts of the
territory； keep accounts with the government for their supplies and
for public works； a veritable army and increasing daily； since the
government； impelled by centralization； takes sole responsibility for
all ventures； and； requested by public opinion； it increases the
number of undertakings useful to the public。 Under Louis XV。 the
State builds six thousand leagues of roads； and under Louis XVI。 in
1788； to guard against famine； it purchases grain to the amount of
forty millions。
Through this increase of activity and its demands for capital
the State becomes the universal debtor； henceforth public affairs are
no longer exclusively the king's business。 His creditors become
uneasy at his expenditures； for it is their money he wastes； and； if
he proves a bad administrator； they will be ruined。 They want to know
something of his budget； to examine his books： a lender always has the
right to look after his securities。 We accordingly see the bourgeois
raising his head and beginning to pay close attention to the great
machine whose performances； hitherto concealed from vulgar eyes； have；
up to the present time； been kept a state secret。 He becomes a
politician； and； at the same time； discontented。 For it cannot be
denied that these matters； in which he is interested； are badly
conducted。 Any young man of good family managing affairs in the same
way would be checked。 The expenses of the administration of the State
are always in excess of the revenue＇9＇。 According to official
admissions＇10＇ the annual deficit amounted to 70 in 1770； and 80
millions in 1783； when one has attempted to reduce this it has been
through bankruptcies； one to the tune of two milliards at the end of
the reign of Louis XIV； and another almost equal to it in the time of
Law； and another on from a third to a half of all the interests in the
time of Terray； without mentioning suppressions in detail； reductions；
indefinite delays in payment； and other violent and fraudulent means
which a powerful debtor employs with impunity against a feeble
creditor。 〃Fifty…six violations of public faith have occurred from
Henry IV down to the ministry of M。 de Loménie inclusive；〃＇11＇ while a
last bankruptcy； more frightful than the others； loom up on the
horizon。 Several persons； Bezenval and Linguet for instance；
earnestly recommend it as a necessary and salutary amputation。 Not
only are there precedents for this； and in this respect the government
will do no more than follow its own example； but such is its daily
practice； since it lives only from day to day； by dint of expedients
and delays； digging one hole to stop up another； and escaping failure
only through the forced patience which it imposes on its creditors。
With it； says a contemporary； people were never sure of anything；
being always obliged to wait＇12＇。 〃Were their capital invested in its
loans； they could never rely on a fixed date for the payment of
interest。 Did they build ships； repair highways； or the soldiers
clothed； they had no guarantees for their advances； no certificates of
repayment； being reduced to calculate the chances involved in a
ministerial contract as they would the risks of a bold speculation。〃
It pays if it can and only when it can； even the members of the
household； the purveyors of the table and the personal attendants of
the king。 In 1753 the domestics of Louis XV had received nothing for
three years。 We have seen how his grooms went out to beg during the
night in the streets of Versailles； how his purveyors 〃hid
themselves；〃 how ； under Louis XVI in 1778； there were 792；620 francs
due to the wine…merchant； and 3；467；980 francs to the purveyor of fish
and meat＇13＇。 In 1788； so great is the distress； the Minister de
Loménie appropriates and expends the funds of a private subscription
raised for a hospital； and； at the time of his resignation； the
treasury is empty； save 450；000 francs； half of which he puts in his
pocket。 What an administration！ In the presence of this debtor；
evidently becoming insolvent； all people； far and near； interested in
his business； consult together with alarm； and debtors are
innumerable； consisting of bankers； merchants； manufacturers；
employees； lenders of every kind and degree； and； in the front rank；
the capitalists； who have put all their means for life into his hands；
and who are to beg should he not pay them annually the 44 millions he
owes them； the industrialists and traders who have entrusted their
commercial integrity to him and who would shrink with horror from
failure as its issue； and after these come their creditors； their
clerks； their relations； in short； the largest portion of the laboring
and peaceable class which； thus far； had obeyed without a murmur and
never dreamed of bringing the established order of things under its
control。 Henceforth this class will exercise control attentively；
distrustfully and angrily。 Woe to those who are at fault； for they
well know that the ruin of the State is their ruin。
III。 SOCIAL PROMOTION。
He rises on the social ladder。 … The noble draws near to him。
… He becomes cultivated。 … He enters into society。 … He regards
himself as the equal of the noble。 … Privileges an annoyance。
Meanwhile this class has climbed up the social ladder； and；
through its élite； rejoined those in the highest position。 Formerly
between Dorante and M。 Jourdain； between Don Juan and M。 Dimanche；＇14＇
between M。 Sotenville himself and Georges Dandin； the distance was
vast； everything was different … dress； house； habits； characters；
points of honor； ideas and language。 On the one hand the nobles are
drawn nearer to the Third…Estate and； on the other； the Third…Estate
is drawn nearer to the nobles； actual equality having preceded
equality as a right。 On the approach of the year 1789 it was
difficult to distinguish one from the other in the street。 The sword
is no longer worn by gentlemen in the city； they have abandoned
embroideries and laces； and walk about in plain frock…coats； or drive
themselves in their cabriolets＇15＇。 〃The simplicity of English
customs；〃 and the customs of the Third…Estate seem to them better
adapted to ordinary life。 Their prominence proves irksome to them and
they grow weary of being always on parade。 Henceforth they accep