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influence in shaping and diversifying man； it hardly notes them； even
setting them aside。 In a tragedy the scene is set everywhere and any
time； the contrary； that the action takes place nowhere in no specific
epoch； is equally valid。 It may take place in any palace or in any
temple；＇29＇ in which； to get rid of all historic or personal impressions；
habits and costumes are introduced conventionally； being neither French
nor foreign； nor ancient； nor modern。 In this abstract world the
address is always 〃you〃（as opposed to the familiar thou）；＇30＇
〃Seigneur〃 and 〃Madame；〃 the noble style always clothing the most
different characters in the same dress。 When Corneille and Racine；
through the stateliness and elegance of their verse； afford us a
glimpse of contemporary figures they do it unconsciously； imagining
that they are portraying man in himself； and； if we of the present
time recognize in their pieces either the gentleman； the duelists； the
bullies； the politicians or the heroines of the Fronde； or the
courtiers； princes and bishops； the ladies and gentlemen in waiting of
the regular monarchy； it is because they have inadvertently dipped
their brush in their own experience； some of its color having fallen
accidentally on the bare ideal outline which they wished to trace。 We
have simply a contour； a general sketch； filled up with the harmonious
gray tone of correct diction。 … Even in comedy； necessarily employing
current habits； even with Molière； so frank and so bold； the model is
unfinished； all individual peculiarities being suppressed； the face
becoming for a moment a theatrical mask； and the personage； especially
when talking in verse； sometimes losing its animation in becoming the
mouth…piece for a monologue or a dissertation。＇31＇ The stamp of rank；
condition or fortune； whether gentleman or bourgeois； provincial or
Parisian； is frequently overlooked。＇32＇ We are rarely made to
appreciate physical externals； as in Shakespeare； the temperament； the
state of the nervous system； the bluff or drawling tone； the impulsive
or restrained action； the emaciation or obesity of a character。＇33＇
Frequently no trouble is taken to find a suitable name； this being
either Chrysale； Orgon； Damis； Dorante； or Valère。 The name designates
only a simple quality； that of a father； a youth； a valet； a grumbler；
a gallant； and； like an ordinary cloak； fitting indifferently all
forms alike； as it passes from the wardrobe of Molière to that of
Regnard； Destouche； Lesage or Marivaux。＇34＇ The character lacks the
personal badge； the unique； authentic appellation serving as the
primary stamp of an individual。 All these details and circumstances；
all these aids and accompaniments of a man； remain outside of the
classic theory。 To secure the admission of some of them required the
genius of Molière； the fullness of his conception； the wealth of his
observation； the extreme freedom of his pen。 It is equally true again
that he often omits them； and that； in other cases； he introduces only
a small number of them； because he avoids giving to these general
characters a richness and complexity that might interfere with the
story。 The simpler the theme the clearer its development； the first
duty of the author throughout this literature being to clearly develop
the restricted theme of which he makes a selection。
There is； accordingly； a radical defect in the classic spirit； the
defect of its qualities； and which； at first kept within proper
bounds； contributes towards the production of its purest master…
pieces； but which； in accordance with the universal law； goes on
increasing and turns into a vice through the natural effect of age；
use； and success。 Contracted at the start； it is to become yet more
so。 In the eighteenth century the description of real life； of a
specific person； just as he is in nature and in history； that is to
say； an undefined unit； a rich plexus； a complete organism of
peculiarities and traits； superposed； entangled and co…ordinated； is
improper。 The capacity to receive and contain all these is wanting。
Whatever can be discarded is cast aside； and to such an extent that
nothing is left at last but a condensed extract； an evaporated
residuum； an almost empty name； in short； what is called a hollow
abstraction。 The only characters in the eighteenth century exhibiting
any life are the off…hand sketches； made in passing and as if
contraband； by Voltaire； Baron de Thundertentronk and Milord Watthen；
the lesser figures in his stories； and five or six portraits of
secondary rank； Turcaret； Gil Blas； Marianne； Manon Lescaut； Rameau；
and Figaro； two or three of the rough sketches of Crébillon the
younger and of Collé； all so many works in which sap flows through a
familiar knowledge of things； comparable with those of the minor
masters in painting； Watteau； Fragonard； Saint…Aubin； Moreau； Lancret；
Pater； and Beaudouin； and which； accepted with difficulty； or as a
surprise； by the official drawing room are still to subsist after the
grander and soberer canvases shall have become moldy through their
wearisome exhalations。 Everywhere else the sap dries up； and； instead
of blooming plants； we encounter only flowers of painted paper。 What
are all the serious poems； from the 〃la Henriade〃 of Voltaire to the
〃Mois〃 by Roucher or the 〃l'Imagination〃 by Delille； but so many
pieces of rhetoric garnished with rhymes？ Examine the innumerable
tragedies and comedies of which Grimm and Collé gives us mortuary
extracts； even the meritorious works of Voltaire and Crébillon； and
later； those of authors of repute； Du Belloy； Laharpe； Ducis； and
Marie Chénier？ Eloquence； art； situations； correct verse； all exist in
these except human nature； the personages are simply well…taught
puppets； and generally mere mouthpieces by which the author makes his
declamation public； Greeks； Romans； Medieval knights； Turks； Arabs；
Peruvians； Giaours； or Byzantines； they have all the same declamatory
mechanisms。 The public； meanwhile； betrays no surprise。 It is not
aware of history。 It assumes that humanity is everywhere the same。 It
establishes the success alike of the 〃Incas〃 by Marmontel； and of
〃Gonsalve〃 and the 〃Nouvelles〃 by Florian； also of the peasants；
mechanics； Negroes； Brazilians； Parsees； and Malabarites that appear
before it churning out their exaggerations。 Man is simply regarded as
a reasoning being； alike in all ages and alike in all places；
Bernardin de Saint…Pierre endows his pariah with this habit； like
Diderot； in his Tahitians。 The one recognized principle is that every
human being must think and talk like a book。 … And how inadequate
their historical background！ With the exception of 〃Charles XII。；〃 a
contemporary on whom Voltaire； thanks to eye eye…witnesses； bestows
fresh life； also his spirited sketches of Englishmen； Frenchmen；
Spaniards； Italians and Germans； scattered through his stories； where
are real persons to be found？ With Hume； Gibbon and Robertson；
belonging to the French school； and who are at once adopted in France；
in the researches into our middle ages of Dubos and of Mably； in the
〃Louis XI〃 of Duclos； in the 〃Anarcharsis〃 of Barthélemy； even in the
〃Essai sur les Moeurs；〃 and in the 〃Siecle de Louis XIV〃 of Voltaire；
even in the 〃Grandeur des Romains；〃 and the 〃Esprit des Lois〃 of
Montesquieu； what peculiar deficiency！ Erudition； criticism； common
sense； an almost exact exposition of dogmas and of institutions；
philosophic views of the relationships between events and on the
general run of these； nothing is lacking but the people！ On reading
these it seems as if the climates； institutions and civilizations
which so completely modifies the human intellect； are simply so many
outworks； so many fortuitous exteriors； which； far from reflecting its
depths scarcely penetrate beneath its surface。 The vast differences
separating the men of two centuries； or of two peoples； escape them
entirely。＇35＇ The ancient Greek； the early Christian； the conquering
Teuton； the feudal man； the Arab of Mahomet； the German； the
Renaissance Englishman； the puritan； appear in their books as in
engravings and frontispieces； with some difference in costume； but the
same bodies； the same faces； the same countenances； toned down；
obliterated； proper； adapted to the conventionalities of good manners。
That sympathetic imagination by which the writer enters into the mind
of another； and reproduces in himself a system of habits and feelings
so different from his own； is the talent the most absent in the
eighteenth century。 With the exception of Diderot； who uses it badly
and capriciously； it almost entirely disappears in the last half of
the century。 Consider in turn； during the same period； in France and
in England； where it is most extensively used； the romance； a sort of
mirror everywhere transportable； the best adapted to reflect all
phrases of nature a