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very time a military generation。 Each petty chieftain has planted his
feet firmly on the domain he occupies； or which he withholds； he no
longer keeps it in trust； or for use； but as property； and an
inheritance。 It is his own manor； his own village； his own earldom； it
no longer belongs to the king； he contends for it in his own right。
The benefactor； the conservator at this time is the man capable of
fighting； of defending others； and such really is the character of the
newly established class。 The noble； in the language of the day； is the
man of war； the soldier （miles）； and it is he who lays the second
foundation of modern society。
In the tenth century his extraction is of little consequence。 He is
oftentimes a Carlovingian count； a beneficiary of the king； the sturdy
proprietor of one of the last of the Frank estates。 In one place he is
a martial bishop or a valiant abbot in another a converted pagan； a
retired bandit； a prosperous adventurer； a rude huntsman； who long
supported himself by the chase and on wild fruits。＇9＇ The ancestors
of Robert the Strong are unknown； and later the story runs that the
Capets are descended from a Parisian butcher。 In any event the noble
of that epoch is the brave； the powerful man； expert in the use of
arms； who； at the head of a troop； instead of flying or paying ransom；
offers his breast； stands firm； and protects a patch of the soil with
his sword。 To perform this service he has no need of ancestors； all
that he requires is courage； for he is himself an ancestor； security
for the present； which he insures； is too acceptable to permit any
quibbling about his title。…Finally； after so many centuries； we find
each district possessing its armed men； a settled body of troops
capable of resisting nomadic invasion； the community is no longer a
prey to strangers。 At the end of a century this Europe； which had been
sacked by the Vikings； is to throw 200；000 armed men into Asia。
Henceforth； both north and south； in the face of Moslems and of
pagans； instead of being conquered it is to conquer。 For the second
time an ideal figure becomes apparent after that of the saint；＇10＇
the hero； and the newborn sentiment； as effective as the old one； thus
groups men together into a stable society。 …This consists of a
resident corps of men…at…arms； in which； from father to son； one is
always a soldier。 Each individual is born into it with his hereditary
rank； his local post； his pay in landed property； with the certainty
of never being abandoned by his chieftain； and with the obligation of
giving his life for his chieftain in time of need。 In this epoch of
perpetual warfare only one set…up is valid； that of a body of men
confronting the enemy； and such is the feudal system； we can judge by
this trait alone of the perils which it wards off； and of the service
which it enjoins。 〃In those days；〃 says the Spanish general chronicle；
〃kings； counts； nobles； and knights； in order to be ready at all
hours； kept their horses in the rooms in which they slept with their
wives。〃 The viscount in his tower defending the entrance to a valley
or the passage of a ford； the marquis thrown as a forlorn hope on the
burning frontier； sleeps with his hand on his weapon； like an American
lieutenant among the Sioux behind a western stockade。 His dwelling is
simply a camp and a refuge。 Straw and heaps of leaves cover the
pavement of the great hall； here he rests with his troopers； taking
off a spur if he has a chance to sleep。 The loopholes in the wall
scarcely allow daylight to enter； the main thing is not to be shot
with arrows。 Every taste； every sentiment is subordinated to military
service； there are certain places on the European frontier where a
child of fourteen is required to march； and where the widow up to
sixty is required to remarry。 Men to fill up the ranks； men to mount
guard； is the call； which at this moment issues from all institutions
like the summons of a brazen horn。 … Thanks to these braves； the
peasant（villanus） enjoys protection。 He is no longer to be
slaughtered； no longer to be led captive with his family； in herds；
with his neck in the yoke。 He ventures to plow and to sow； and to
reply upon his crops； in case of danger he knows that he can find an
asylum for himself； and for his grain and cattle； in the circle of
palisades at the base of the fortress。 By degrees necessity
establishes a tacit contract between the military chieftain of the
donjon and the early settlers of the open country； and this becomes a
recognized custom。 They work for him； cultivate his ground； do his
carting； pay him quittances； so much for house； so much per head for
cattle； so much to inherit or to sell； he is compelled to support his
troop。 But when these rights are discharged he errs if； through pride
or greed； he takes more than his due。 … As to the vagabonds； the
wretched； who； in the universal disorder and devastation； seek refuge
under his guardianship； their condition is harder。 The soil belongs to
the lord because without him it would be uninhabitable。 If he assigns
them a plot of ground； if he permits them merely to encamp on it； if
he sets them to work or furnishes them with seeds it is on conditions；
which he prescribes。 They are to become his serfs； subject to the laws
on mainmorte。＇11＇ Wherever they may go he is to have the right of
fetching them back。 From father to son they are his born domestics；
applicable to any pursuit he pleases； taxable and workable at his
discretion。 They are not allowed to transmit anything to a child
unless the latter； 〃living from their pot；〃 can； after their death；
continue their service。 〃Not to be killed；〃 says Stendhal； 〃and to
have a good sheepskin coat in winter； was； for many people in the
tenth century； the height of felicity〃； let us add； for a woman； that
of not being violated by a whole band。 When we clearly represent to
ourselves the condition of humanity in those days； we can comprehend
how men readily accepted the most obnoxious of feudal rights； even
that of the droit du seigneur。 The risks to which they were daily
exposed were even worse。＇12＇ The proof of it is that the people
flocked to the feudal structure as soon as it was completed。 In
Normandy； for instance； when Rollo had divided off the lands with a
line； and hung the robbers； the inhabitants of the neighboring
provinces rushed in to establish themselves。 The slightest security
sufficed to repopulate a country。
People accordingly lived； or rather began to live once more； under
the rude； iron…gloved hand which used them roughly； but which afforded
them protection。 The seignior； sovereign and proprietor； maintains for
himself under this double title； the moors； the river； the forest； all
the game。 It is no great evil； since the country is nearly a desert；
and he devotes his leisure to exterminating large wild beasts。 He
alone possessed the resources。 He is the only one that is able to
construct the mill； the oven； and the winepress； to establish the
ferry； the bridge； or the highway； to dike in a marsh； and to raise or
purchase a bull。 To indemnify himself he taxes for these； for forces
their use。 If he is intelligent and a good manager of men； if he seeks
to derive the greatest profit from his ground； he gradually relaxes；
or allows to become relaxed； the meshes of the net in which his
peasants and serfs work unprofitably because they are too tightly
drawn。 Habits； necessity； a voluntary or forced conformity； have their
effect。 Lords； peasants； serfs； and bourgeois； in the end adapted to
their condition； bound together by a common interest； form together a
society； a veritable corporation。 The seigniory； the county； the duchy
becomes a patrimony which is loved through a blind instinct； and to
which all are devoted。 It is confounded with the seignior and his
family； in this relation people are proud of him。 They narrate his
feats of arms； they cheer him as his cavalcade passes along the
street； they rejoice in his magnificence through sympathy。＇13＇ If he
becomes a widower and has no children； they send deputations to him to
entreat him to remarry； in order that at his death the country may not
fall into a war of succession or be given up to the encroachment of
neighbors。 Thus there is a revival； after a thousand years； of the
most powerful and the most vivacious of the sentiments that support
human society。 This one is the more precious because it is capable of
expanding。 In order that the small feudal patrimony to become the
great national patrimony； it now suffices for the seigniories to be
combined in the hands of a single lord； and that the king； chief of
the nobles； should overlay the work of the nobles with the third
foundation of France。
III。 Services and Recompenses of the King。
Kings built the whole of this foundation； one stone after
another。 Hugues Capet laid t