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but as the average day's work brought only nineteen sous instead of
forty； the day…laborer； working the same time； could buy only the half
of a loaf instead of a full loaf＇33＇。 Taking everything into account；
and wages being estimated according to the price of grain； we find
that the husbandman's manual labor then procured him 959 litres of
wheat； while nowadays it gives him 1；851 litres； his well…being；
accordingly； has advanced ninety…three per cent。； which suffices to
show to what extent his predecessors suffered privations。 And these
privations are peculiar to France。 Through analogous observations and
estimates Arthur Young shows that in France those who lived on field
labor； and they constituted the great majority； are seventy…six per
cent。 less comfortable than the same laborers in England； while they
are seventy…six per cent。 less well fed and well clothed； besides
being worse treated in sickness and in health。 The result is that in
seven…eighths of the kingdom； there are no farmers； but simply
métayers （a kind of poor tenants）＇34＇。 The peasant is too poor to
undertake cultivation on his own account； possessing no agricultural
capital＇35＇。 〃The proprietor； desirous of improving his land； finds no
one to cultivate it but miserable creatures possessing only a pair of
hands； he is obliged to advance everything for its cultivation at his
own expense； animals； implements and seed； and even to advance the
wherewithal to this tenant to feed him until the first crop comes in。〃
… 〃At Vatan； for example； in Berry； the tenants； almost every year；
borrow bread of the proprietor in order to await the harvesting。〃 …
〃Very rarely is one found who is not indebted to his master at least
one hundred livres a year。〃
Frequently the latter proposes to abandon the entire crop to them
on condition that they demand nothing of him during the year； 〃these
miserable creatures〃 have refused； left to themselves； they would not
be sure of keeping themselves alive。 … In Limousin and in Angoumois
their poverty is so great＇36＇ 〃that； deducting the taxes to which they
are subject； they have no more than from twenty…five to thirty livres
each person per annum to spend； and not in money； it must be stated；
but counting whatever they consume in kind out of the crops they
produce。 Frequently they have less； and when they cannot possibly make
a living the master is obliged to support them。 。 。 。 The métayer is
always reduced to just what is absolutely necessary to keep him from
starving。〃 As to the small proprietor； the villager who plows his land
himself； his condition is but little better。 〃Agriculture；＇37＇ as our
peasants practice it； is a veritable drudgery； they die by thousands
in childhood； and in maturity they seek places everywhere but where
they should be。〃
In 1783； throughout the plain of the Toulousain they eat only
maize； a mixture of flour； common seeds and very little wheat； those
on the mountains feed； a part of the year； on chestnuts； the potato is
hardly known； and； according to Arthur Young； ninety…nine out of a
hundred peasants would refuse to eat it。 According to the reports of
intendants； the basis of food； in Normandy； is oats； in the election…
district of Troyes； buck…wheat； in the Marche and in Limousin；
buckwheat with chestnuts and radishes； in Auvergne； buckwheat；
chestnuts； milk…curds and a little salted goat's meat； in Beauce； a
mixture of barley and rye； in Berry； a mixture of barley and oats。
There is no wheat bread； the peasant consumes inferior flour only
because he is unable to pay two sous a pound for his bread。 There is
no butcher's meat； at best he kills one pig a year。 His dwelling is
built of clay （pise）； roofed with thatch； without windows； and the
floor is the beaten ground。 Even when the soil furnishes good building
materials； stone； slate and tile； the windows have no sashes。 In a
parish in Normandy；＇38＇ in 1789； 〃most of the dwellings consist of
four posts。〃 They are often mere stables or barns 〃to which a chimney
has been added made of four poles and some mud。〃 Their clothes are
rags； and often in winter these are muslin rags。 In Quercy and
elsewhere； they have no stockings； or wooden shoes。 〃It is not in the
power of an English imagination；〃 says Arthur Young； 〃to imagine the
animals that waited on us here at the Chapeau Rouge； … creatures
that were called by courtesy Souillac women； but in reality walking
dung…hills。 But a neatly dressed； clean waiting…girl at an inn； will
be looked for in vain in France。〃 On reading descriptions made on the
spot we see in France a similar aspect of country and of peasantry as
in Ireland； at least in its broad outlines。
III。 THE COUNTRYSIDE。
Aspects of the country and of the peasantry。
In the most fertile regions； for instance； in Limagne； both
cottages and faces denote 〃misery and privation。〃＇39＇ 〃The peasants
are generally feeble； emaciated and of slight stature。〃 Nearly all
derive wheat and wine from their homesteads； but they are forced to
sell this to pay their rents and taxes； they eat black bread； made of
rye and barley； and their sole beverage is water poured on the lees
and the husks。 〃An Englishman＇40＇ who has not traveled can not imagine
the figure made by infinitely the greater part of the countrywomen in
France。〃 Arthur Young； who stops to talk with one of these in
Champagne； says that 〃this woman； at no great distance； might have
been taken for sixty or seventy； her figure was so bent and her face
so hardened and furrowed by labor； … but she said she was only
twenty…eight。〃 This woman； her husband and her household； afford a
sufficiently accurate example of the condition of the small
proprietary husbandmen。 Their property consists simply of a patch of
ground； with a cow and a poor little horse； their seven children
consume the whole of the cow's milk。 They owe to one seignior a
franchard （forty…two pounds） of flour； and three chickens； to another
three franchards of oats； one chicken and one sou； to which must be
added the taille and other taxes。 〃God keep us！〃 she said； 〃for the
tailles and the dues crush us。〃 … What must it be in districts where
the soil is poor！ …
〃From Ormes； （near Chatellerault）； as far as Poitiers；〃 writes a
lady；＇41＇ 〃there is a good deal of ground which brings in nothing； and
from Poitiers to my residence （in Limousin） 25；000 arpents of ground
consist wholly of heath and sea…grass。 The peasantry live on rye； of
which they do not remove the bran； and which is as black and heavy as
lead。 … In Poitou； and here； they plow up only the skin of the
ground with a miserable little plow without wheels。 。 。 。 From
Poitiers to Montmorillon it is nine leagues； equal to sixteen of
Paris； and I assure you that I have seen but four men on the road；
and； between Montmorillon and my own house； which is four leagues； but
three； and then only at a distance； not having met one on the road。
You need not be surprised at this in such a country。 。 。 Marriage
takes place as early as with the grand seigniors；〃 doubtless for fear
of the militia。 〃But the population of the country is no greater
because almost every infant dies。 Mothers having scarcely any milk；
their infants eat the bread of which I spoke； the stomach of a girl of
four years being as big as that of a pregnant woman。 。 。 。 The rye
crop this year was ruined by the frost on Easter day； flour is scarce；
of the twelve métairies owned by my mother； four of them may； perhaps；
have some on hand。 There has been no rain since Easter； no hay； no
pasture； no vegetables； no fruit。 You see the lot of the poor peasant。
There is no manure； and there are no cattle。 。 。 。 My mother； whose
granaries used to be always full； has not a grain of wheat in them；
because； for two years past； she has fed all her métayers and the
poor。〃
〃The peasant is assisted；〃 says a seignior of the same
province；＇42＇ 〃protected； and rarely maltreated； but he is looked upon
with disdain。 If kindly and pliable he is made subservient； but if
ill…disposed he becomes soured and irritable。 。 。 。 He is kept in
misery； in an abject state； by men who are not at all inhuman but
whose prejudices； especially among the nobles； lead them to regard him
as of a different species of being。 。 。 。 The proprietor gets all he
can out of him； in any event； looking upon him and his oxen as
domestic animals； he puts them into harness and employs them in all
weathers for every kind of journey； and for every species of carting
and transport。 On the other hand； this métayer thinks of living with
as little labor as possible； converting as much ground as he can into
pasturage； for the reason that the product arising from the increase
of stock costs him no labor。 The little plowing he does is for the
purpose of raising low…priced provisions suitable for his own
nourishment