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should place himself； as nearly as possible； in the situation of their
auditors： he should divest himself of his modern feelings and
acquirements； and make the prejudices and interests of the Athenian
citizen his own。 He who studies their works in this spirit will find that
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many of those things which； to an English reader； appear to be blemishes；…
…the frequent violation of those excellent rules of evidence by which our
courts of law are regulated；the introduction of extraneous matter；the
reference to considerations of political expediency in judicial
investigations；the assertions； without proof；the passionate entreaties；
the furious invectives；are really proofs of the prudence and address of
the speakers。 He must not dwell maliciously on arguments or phrases；
but acquiesce in his first impressions。 It requires repeated perusal and
reflection to decide rightly on any other portion of literature。 But with
respect to works of which the merit depends on their instantaneous effect
the most hasty judgment is likely to be best。
The history of eloquence at Athens is remarkable。 From a very early
period great speakers had flourished there。 Pisistratus and Themistocles
are said to have owed much of their influence to their talents for debate。
We learn； with more certainty； that Pericles was distinguished by
extraordinary oratorical powers。 The substance of some of his speeches is
transmitted to us by Thucydides； and that excellent writer has doubtless
faithfully reported the general line of his arguments。 But the manner；
which in oratory is of at least as much consequence as the matter； was of
no importance to his narration。 It is evident that he has not attempted to
preserve it。 Throughout his work； every speech on every subject；
whatever may have been the character of the dialect of the speaker； is in
exactly the same form。 The grave king of Sparta； the furious demagogue
of Athens； the general encouraging his army； the captive supplicating for
his life； all are represented as speakers in one unvaried style；… …a style
moreover wholly unfit for oratorical purposes。 His mode of reasoning is
singularly elliptical；in reality most consecutive；yet in appearance often
incoherent。 His meaning； in itself sufficiently perplexing； is compressed
into the fewest possible words。 His great fondness for antithetical
expression has not a little conduced to this effect。 Every one must have
observed how much more the sense is condensed in the verses of Pope and
his imitators； who never ventured to continue the same clause from
couplet to couplet； than in those of poets who allow themselves that
license。 Every artificial division； which is strongly marked； and which
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frequently recurs； has the same tendency。 The natural and perspicuous
expression which spontaneously rises to the mind will often refuse to
accommodate itself to such a form。 It is necessary either to expand it
into weakness； or to compress it into almost impenetrable density。 The
latter is generally the choice of an able man； and was assuredly the choice
of Thucydides。
It is scarcely necessary to say that such speeches could never have
been delivered。 They are perhaps among the most difficult passages in
the Greek language； and would probably have been scarcely more
intelligible to an Athenian auditor than to a modern reader。 Their
obscurity was acknowledged by Cicero； who was as intimate with the
literature and language of Greece as the most accomplished of its natives；
and who seems to have held a respectable rank among the Greek authors。
Their difficulty to a modern reader lies； not in the words； but in the
reasoning。 A dictionary is of far less use in studying them than a clear
head and a close attention to the context。 They are valuable to the
scholar as displaying； beyond almost any other compositions； the powers
of the finest of languages： they are valuable to the philosopher as
illustrating the morals and manners of a most interesting age： they
abound in just thought and energetic expression。 But they do not enable
us to form any accurate opinion on the merits of the early Greek orators。
Though it cannot be doubted that； before the Persian wars； Athens had
produced eminent speakers； yet the period during which eloquence most
flourished among her citizens was by no means that of her greatest power
and glory。 It commenced at the close of the Peloponnesian war。 In fact；
the steps by which Athenian oratory approached to its finished excellence
seem to have been almost contemporaneous with those by which the
Athenian character and the Athenian empire sunk to degradation。 At the
time when the little commonwealth achieved those victories which
twenty… five eventful centuries have left unequalled； eloquence was in its
infancy。 The deliverers of Greece became its plunderers and oppressors。
Unmeasured exaction； atrocious vengeance； the madness of the multitude；
the tyranny of the great； filled the Cyclades with tears； and blood； and
mourning。 The sword unpeopled whole islands in a day。 The plough
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passed over the ruins of famous cities。 The imperial republic sent forth
her children by thousands to pine in the quarries of Syracuse； or to feed
the vultures of Aegospotami。 She was at length reduced by famine and
slaughter to humble herself before her enemies； and to purchase existence
by the sacrifice of her empire and her laws。 During these disastrous and
gloomy years； oratory was advancing towards its highest excellence。
And it was when the moral； the political； and the military character of the
people was most utterly degraded； it was when the viceroy of a
Macedonian sovereign gave law to Greece； that the courts of Athens
witnessed the most splendid contest of eloquence that the world has ever
known。
The causes of this phenomenon it is not； I think； difficult to assign。
The division of labour operates on the productions of the orator as it does
on those of the mechanic。 It was remarked by the ancients that the
Pentathlete； who divided his attention between several exercises； though
he could not vie with a boxer in the use of the cestus； or with one who had
confined his attention to running in the contest of the stadium； yet enjoyed
far greater general vigour and health than either。 It is the same with the
mind。 The superiority in technical skill is often more than compensated
by the inferiority in general intelligence。 And this is peculiarly the case in
politics。 States have always been best governed by men who have taken
a wide view of public affairs； and who have rather a general acquaintance
with many sciences than a perfect mastery of one。 The union of the
political and military departments in Greece contributed not a little to the
splendour of its early history。 After their separation more skilful generals
and greater speakers appeared； but the breed of statesmen dwindled and
became almost extinct。 Themistocles or Pericles would have been no
match for Demosthenes in the assembly； or for Iphicrates in the field。
But surely they were incomparably better fitted than either for the supreme
direction of affairs。
There is indeed a remarkable coincidence betw