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majority。 The proletariat； the lowest stratum of our present society； cannot
stir； cannot raise itself up； without the whole super… incumbent strata of
official society being sprung into the air。''
The Communists； says Marx； stand for the proletariat as a whole。 They
are international。 ‘‘The Communists are further reproached with desiring
to abolish countries and nationality。 The working men have no country。 We
cannot take from them what they have not got。''
The immediate aim of the Communists is the conquests of political
power by the proletariat。 ‘‘The theory of the Communists may be summed
up in the single sentence： Abolition of private property。''
The materialistic interpretation of history is used to answer such
charges as that Communism is anti…Christian。 ‘‘The charges against
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PROPOSED ROADS TO FREEDOM
Communism made from a religious； a philosophical； and； generally； from
an ideological standpoint； are not deserving of serious examination。 Does
it require deep intuition to comprehend that man's ideas； views and
conceptions； in one word； man's consciousness； changes with every
change in the conditions of his material existence； in his social relations；
and in his social life？''
The attitude of the Manifesto to the State is not altogether easy to
grasp。 ‘‘The executive of the modern State；'' we are told； ‘‘is but a
Committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie。''
Nevertheless； the first step for the proletariat must be to acquire control of
the State。 ‘‘We have seen above； that the first step in the revolution by the
working class； is to raise the proletariat to the position of ruling class； to
win the battle of democracy。 The proletariat will use its political
supremacy to wrest； by degrees； all capital from the bourgeoisie； to
centralize all instruments of production in the hands of the State； i。e。； of
the proletariat organized as the ruling class； and to increase the total of
productive forces as rapidly as possible。''
The Manifesto passes on to an immediate program of reforms； which
would in the first instance much increase the power of the existing State；
but it is contended that when the Socialist revolution is accomplished； the
State； as we know it； will have ceased to exist。 As Engels says elsewhere；
when the proletariat seizes the power of the State ‘‘it puts an end to all
differences of class and antagonisms of class； and consequently also puts
an end to the State as a State。'' Thus； although State Socialism might； in
fact； be the outcome of the proposals of Marx and Engels； they cannot
themselves be accused of any glorification of the State。
The Manifesto ends with an appeal to the wage… earners of the world
to rise on behalf of Communism。 ‘‘The Communists disdain to conceal
their views and aims。 They openly declare that their ends can be attained
only by the forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions。 Let the
ruling classes tremble at a Communistic revolution。 The proletarians have
nothing to lose but their chains。 They have a world to win。 Working men
of all countries； unite！''
In all the great countries of the Continent； except Russia； a revolution
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PROPOSED ROADS TO FREEDOM
followed quickly on the publication of the Communist Manifesto； but the
revolution was not economic or international； except at first in France。
Everywhere else it was inspired by the ideas of nationalism。 Accordingly；
the rulers of the world； momentarily terrified； were able to recover power
by fomenting the enmities inherent in the nationalist idea； and everywhere；
after a very brief triumph； the revolution ended in war and reaction。 The
ideas of the Communist Manifesto appeared before the world was ready
for them； but its authors lived to see the beginnings of the growth of that
Socialist movement in every country； which has pressed on with
increasing force； influencing Governments more and more； dominating the
Russian Revolution； and perhaps capable of achieving at no very distant
date that international triumph to which the last sentences of the Manifesto
summon the wage…earners of the world。
Marx's magnum opus； ‘‘Capital；'' added bulk and substance to the
theses of the Communist Manifesto。 It contributed the theory of surplus
value； which professed to explain the actual mechanism of capitalist
exploitation。 This doctrine is very complicated and is scarcely tenable as a
contribution to pure theory。 It is rather to be viewed as a translation into
abstract terms of the hatred with which Marx regarded the system that
coins wealth out of human lives； and it is in this spirit； rather than in that
of disinterested analysis； that it has been read by its admirers。 A critical
examination of the theory of surplus value would require much difficult
and abstract discussion of pure economic theory without having much
bearing upon the practical truth or falsehood of Socialism； it has therefore
seemed impossible within the limits of the present volume。 To my mind
the best parts of the book are those which deal with economic facts； of
which Marx's knowledge was encyclopaedic。 It was by these facts that he
hoped to instil into his disciples that firm and undying hatred that should
make them soldiers to the death in the class war。 The facts which he
accumulates are such as are practically unknown to the vast majority of
those who live comfortable lives。 They are very terrible facts； and the
economic system which generates them must be acknowledged to be a
very terrible system。 A few examples of his choice of facts will serve to
explain the bitterness of many Socialists：
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Mr。 Broughton Charlton； county magistrate； declared； as chairman of
a meeting held at the Assembly Rooms； Nottingham； on the 14th January；
1860； ‘‘that there was an amount of privation and suffering among that
portion of the population connected with the lace trade； unknown in other
parts of the kingdom； indeed； in the civilized world。 。 。 。 Children of nine
or ten years are dragged from their squalid beds at two； three； or four o
clock in the morning and compelled to work for a bare subsistence until
ten； eleven； or twelve at night； their limbs wearing away； their frames
dwindling； their faces whitening； and their humanity absolutely sinking
into a stone…like torpor； utterly horrible to contemplate。''＇4＇
＇4＇ Vol。 i； p。 227。
Three railway men are standing before a London coroner's jurya
guard； an engine…driver； a signalman。 A tremendous railway accident has
hurried hundreds of passengers into another world。 The negligence of the
employes is the cause of the misfortune。 They declare with one voice
before the jury that ten or twelve years before； their labor only lasted eight
hours a day。 During the last five or six years it had been screwed up to 14；
18； and 20 hours； and under a specially severe pressure of holiday…makers；
at times of excursion trains； it often lasted 40 or 50 hours without a break。
They were ordinary men； not Cyclops。 At a certain point their labor…power
failed。 Torpor seized them。 Their brain ceased to think； their eyes to see。
The thoroughly ‘‘respectable'' British jurymen answered by a verdict that
sent them to the next assizes on a charge of manslaughter； and； in a gentle
‘‘rider'' to their verdict； expressed the pious hope that the capitalistic
magnates of the railways would； in future； be more extravagant in the
purchase of a sufficient quantity of labor…power； and more ‘‘abstemious；''
more ‘‘self…denying；'' more ‘‘thrifty；'' in the draining of paid labor…
power。＇5＇
＇5＇ Vol。 i； pp。 237； 238。
In the last week of June； 1863； all the London daily paper