按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
disposition of things rather than by his own nature considered solely
in itself。
Such are the matters which I engaged to prove in IV：xviii。； whereby it
is plain that the law against the slaughtering of animals is founded rather
on vain superstition and womanish pity than on sound reason。 The rational
quest of what is useful to us further teaches us the necessity of
associating ourselves with our fellow men； but … not with beasts； or things；
whose nature is different from our own； we have the same rights in respect
to them as they have in respect to us。 Nay； as everyone's right is defined
by his virtue； or power； men have far greater rights over beasts than
beasts have over men。 Still I do not deny that beasts feel： what I deny is；
that we may not consult our own advantage and use them as we please；
treating them in the way which best suits us； for their nature is not like
ours； and their emotions are naturally different from human emotions
（III：Ivii。Note）。 It remains for me to explain what I mean by； just and
unjust； sin and merit。 On these points see the following note。
Note II。… In the Appendix to Part I。 I undertook to explain praise and
blame； merit and sin； justice and injustice。
Concerning praise and blame I have spoken in III：xxix。Note： the time
has now come to treat of the remaining terms。 But I must first say a few
words concerning man in the state of nature and in society。
Every man exists by sovereign natural right； and； consequently； by
sovereign natural right performs those actions which follow from the
necessity of his own nature； therefore by sovereign natural right every man
judges what is good and what is bad； takes care of his own advantage
according to his own disposition （IV：xix。 and IV：xx。）； avenges the wrongs
done to him （III：xl。Coroll。 ii。）； and endeavours to preserve that which he
loves and to destroy … that which he hates （III：xxviii。）。 Now； if men lived
under the guidance of reason； everyone would remain in possession of this
his right； without any injury being done to his neighbour V：xxxv。Coroll。i。）。
But seeing that they are a prey to their emotions； which far surpass human
power or virtue （IV：vi。）； they are often drawn in different directions； and
being at variance one with another （IV：xxxiii。； xxxiv。）； stand in need of
mutual help （IV：xxxv。Note）。 Wherefore； in order that men may live together
in harmony； and may aid one another； it is necessary that they should
forego their natural right； and； for the sake of security； refrain from
all actions which can injure their fellow…men。 The way in which this end
can be obtained； so that men who are necessarily a prey to their emotions
（IV：iv。Coroll。）； inconstant； and diverse； should be able to render each
other mutually secure； and feel mutual trust； is evident from IV：vii。 and
III：xxxix。 It is there shown； that an emotion can only be restrained by an
emotion stronger than； and contrary to itself； and that men avoid inflicting
injury through fear of incurring a greater injury themselves。
On this law society can be established； so long as it keeps in its own
hand the right； possessed by everyone； of avenging injury； and pronouncing
on good and evil； and provided it also possesses the power to lay down a
general rule of conduct； and to pass laws sanctioned； not by reason； which
is powerless in restraining emotion； but by threats （IV：xvii。Note）。 Such a
society established with laws and the power of preserving itself is called
a State； while those who live under its protection are called citizens。 We
may readily understand that there is in the state of nature nothing； which
by universal consent is pronounced good or bad； for in the state of nature
everyone thinks solely of his own advantage； and according to his
disposition； with reference only to his individual advantage； decides
what is good or bad； being bound by no law to anyone besides himself。
In the state of nature； therefore； sin is inconceivable； it can only
exist in a state； where good and evil are pronounced on by common consent；
and where everyone is bound to obey the State authority。 Sin； then；
is nothing else but disobedience； which is therefore punished by the right
of the State only。 Obedience； on the other hand； is set down as merit；
inasmuch as a man is thought worthy of merit； if he takes delight in the
advantages which a State provides。
Again； in the state of nature； no one is by common consent master of
anything； nor is there anything in nature； which can be said to belong to
one man rather than another： all things are common to all。 Hence； in the
state of nature； we can conceive no wish to render to every man his own；
or to deprive a man of that which belongs to him； in other words； there is
nothing in the state of nature answering to justice and injustice。 Such
ideas are only possible in a social state； when it is decreed by common
consent what belongs to one man and what to another。
From all these considerations it is evident； that justice and
injustice； sin and merit； are extrinsic ideas； and not attributes which
display the nature of the mind。 But I have said enough。
Prop。 XXXVIII。 Whatsoever disposes the human
body； so as to render it capable of being
affected in an increased number of ways； or
of affecting external bodies in an increased
number of ways； is useful to man ； and is so；
in proportion as the body is thereby rendered
more capable of being affected or affecting
other bodies in an increased number of ways；
contrariwise； whatsoever renders the body less
capable in this respect is hurtful to man。
Proof。… Whatsoever thus increases the capabilities of the body increases
also the mind's capability of perception （II：xiv。）； therefore； whatsoever
thus disposes the body and thus renders it capable； is necessarily good or
useful （IV：xxvi。； IV：xxvii。）； and is so in proportion to the extent to
which it can render the body capable； contrariwise （II：xiv。； IV：xxvi。；
IV：xxvii。）； it is hurtful； if it renders the body in this respect less
capable。 Q。E。D。
Prop。 XXXIX。 Whatsoever brings about
the preservation of the proportion of
motion and rest； which the parts of
the human body mutually possess； is
good； contrariwise； whatsoever causes
a change in such proportion is bad。
Proof。… The human body needs many other bodies for its preservation
（II：Post。iv。）。 But that which constitutes the specific reality （forma）
of a human body is； that its parts communicate their several motions
one to another in a certain fixed proportion （Def。 before Lemma iv。 after
II：xiii。）。 Therefore； whatsoever brings about the preservation of the
proportion between motion and rest； which the parts of the human body
mutually possess； preserves the specific reality of the human body； and
consequently renders the human body capable of being affected in many ways
and of affecting external bodies in many ways； consequently it is good
（by the last Prop。）。 Again； whatsoever brings about a change in the
aforesaid proportion causes the human body to assume another specific
character； in other words （see Preface to this Part towards the end；
though the point is indeed self…evident）； to be destroyed； and
consequently totally incapable of being affected in an increased
numbers of ways； therefore it is bad。 Q。E。D。
Note。… The extent to which such causes can injure or be of service to the
mind will be explained in the Fifth Part。 But I would here remark that I
consider that a body undergoes death； when the proportion of motion and
rest which obtained mutually among its several parts is changed。 For I do
not venture to deny that a human body； while keeping the circulation of
the blood and other properties； wherein the life of a body is thought to
consist； may none the less be changed into another nature totally different
from its own。 There is no reason； which compels me to maintain that a body
does not die； unless it becomes a corpse； nay； experience would seem to
point to the opposite conclusion。 It sometimes happens； that a man
undergoes such changes； that I should hardly call him the same。 As I have
heard tell of a certain Spanish poet； who had been seized with sickness；
and though he recovered therefrom yet remained so oblivious of his past
life； that he would not believe the plays and tragedies he had
written to be his own： indeed； he might have been taken for a grown…up
child； if he had also forgotten his native tongue。 If this instance seems
incredible； what shall we say of infants？ A man of ripe age deem