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Mutating variability occurs along three main lines。 Either a character may disappear； or； as we now say； become latent； or a latent character may reappear； reproducing thereby a character which was once prominent in more or less remote ancestors。 The third and most interesting case is that of the production of quite new characters which never existed in the ancestors。 Upon this progressive mutability the main development of the animal and vegetable kingdom evidently depends。 In contrast to this； the two other cases are called retrogressive and degressive mutability。 In nature retrogressive mutability plays a large part； in agriculture and in horticulture it gives rise to numerous varieties； which have in the past been preserved； either on account of their usefulness or beauty； or simply as fancy…types。 In fact the possession of numbers of varieties may be considered as the main character of domesticated animals and cultivated plants。
In the case of retrogressive and degressive mutability the internal cause is at once apparent； for it is this which causes the disappearance or reappearance of some character。 With progressive mutations the case is not so simple； since the new character must first be produced and then displayed。 These two processes are theoretically different； but they may occur together or after long intervals。 The production of the new character I call premutation； and the displaying mutation。 Both of course must have their external as well as their internal causes； as I have repeatedly pointed out in my work on the Mutation Theory。 （〃Die Mutationstheorie〃； 2 vols。； Leipzig； 1901。）
It is probable that nutrition plays as important a part among the external causes of mutability as it does among those of fluctuating variability。 Observations in support of this view； however； are too scanty to allow of a definite judgment。 Darwin assumed an accumulative influence of external causes in the case of the production of new varieties or species。 The accumulation might be limited to the life…time of a single individual； or embrace that of two or more generations。 In the end a degree of instability in the equilibrium of one or more characters might be attained； great enough for a character to give way under a small shock produced by changed conditions of life。 The character would then be thrown over from the old state of equilibrium into a new one。
Characters which happen to be in this state of unstable equilibrium are called mutable。 They may be either latent or active； being in the former case derived from old active ones or produced as new ones （by the process； designated premutation）。 They may be inherited in this mutable condition during a long series of generations。 I have shown that in the case of the evening primrose of Lamarck this state of mutability must have existed for at least half a century； for this species was introduced from Texas into England about the year 1860； and since then all the strains derived from its first distribution over the several countries of Europe show the same phenomena in producing new forms。 The production of the dwarf evening primrose； or Oenothera nanella； is assumed to be due to one of the factors； which determines the tall stature of the parent form； becoming latent； this would； therefore； afford an example of retrogressive mutation。 Most of the other types of my new mutants； on the other hand； seem to be due to progressive mutability。
The external causes of this curious period of mutability are as yet wholly unknown and can hardly be guessed at； since the origin of the Oenothera Lamarckiana is veiled in mystery。 The seeds； introduced into England about 1860； were said to have come from Texas； but whether from wild or from cultivated plants we do not know。 Nor has the species been recorded as having been observed in the wild condition。 This； however； is nothing peculiar。 The European types of Oenothera biennis and O。 muricata are in the same condition。 The first is said to have been introduced from Virginia； and the second from Canada； but both probably from plants cultivated in the gardens of these countries。 Whether the same elementary species are still growing on those spots is unknown； mainly because the different sub…species of the species mentioned have not been systematically studied and distinguished。
The origin of new species； which is in part the effect of mutability； is； however； due mainly to natural selection。 Mutability provides the new characters and new elementary species。 Natural selection； on the other hand； decides what is to live and what to die。 Mutability seems to be free； and not restricted to previously determined lines。 Selection； however； may take place along the same main lines in the course of long geological epochs； thus directing the development of large branches of the animal and vegetable kingdom。 In natural selection it is evident that nutrition and environment are the main factors。 But it is probable that； while nutrition may be one of the main causes of mutability； environment may play the chief part in the decisions ascribed to natural selection。 Relations to neighbouring plants and to injurious or useful animals； have been considered the most important determining factors ever since the time when Darwin pointed out their prevailing influence。
From this discussion of the main causes of variability we may derive the proposition that the study of every phenomenon in the field of heredity； of variability； and of the origin of new species will have to be considered from two standpoints； on one hand we have the internal causes； on the other the external ones。 Sometimes the first are more easily detected； in other cases the latter are more accessible to investigation。 But the complete elucidation of any phenomenon of life must always combine the study of the influence of internal with that of external causes。
III。 POLYMORPHIC VARIABILITY IN CEREALS。
One of the propositions of Darwin's theory of the struggle for life maintains that the largest amount of life can be supported on any area； by great diversification or divergence in the structure and constitution of its inhabitants。 Every meadow and every forest affords a proof of this thesis。 The numerical proportion of the different species of the flora is always changing according to external influences。 Thus； in a given meadow； some species will flower abundantly in one year and then almost disappear； until； after a series of years； circumstances allow them again to multiply rapidly。 Other species； which have taken their places； will then become rare。 It follows from this principle； that notwithstanding the constantly changing conditions； a suitable selection from the constituents of a meadow will ensure a continued high production。 But； although the principle is quite clear； artificial selection has； as yet； done very little towards reaching a really high standard。
The same holds good for cereals。 In ordinary circumstances a field will give a greater yield； if the crop grown consists of a number of sufficiently differing types。 Hence it happens that almost all older varieties of wheat are mixtures of more or less diverging forms。 In the same variety the numerical composition will vary from year to year； and in oats this may； in bad years； go so far as to destroy more than half of the harvest； the wind…oats （Avena fatua）； which scatter their grain to the winds as soon as it ripens； increasing so rapidly that they assume the dominant place。 A severe winter； a cold spring and other extreme conditions of life will destroy one form more completely than another； and it is evident that great changes in the numerical composition of the mixture may thus be brought about。
This mixed condition of the common varieties of cereals was well known to Darwin。 For him it constituted one of the many types of variability。 It is of that peculiar nature to which； in describing other groups； he applies the term polymorphy。 It does not imply that the single constituents of the varieties are at present really changing their characters。 On the other hand； it does not exclude the possibility of such changes。 It simply states that observation shows the existence of different forms； how these have originated is a question which it does not deal with。 In his well… known discussion of the variability of cereals； Darwin is mainly concerned with the question； whether under cultivation they have undergone great changes or only small ones。 The decision ultimately depends on the question； how many forms have originally been taken into cultivation。 Assuming five or six initial species； the variability must be assumed to have been very large； but on the assumption that there were between ten and fifteen types； the necessary range of variability is obviously much smaller。 But in regard to this point； we are of course entirely without historical data。
Few of the varieties of wheat show conspicuous differences； although their number is great。 If we compare the differentiating characters of the smaller types of cereals with those of ordinary wild species； even within the same genus or family； they are obviously much less marked。 All these small characters； howeve