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d the processes by which nature； in the absence of design； obtains analogous results in the differentiation of types。 As soon as the importance of artificial selection in the transformation of species of animals was understood； reflection naturally turned to the human species； and the question arose； How far do men observe； in connection with themselves； those laws of which they make practical application in the case of animals？ Here we come upon one of the ideas which guided the researches of Galton； Darwin's cousin。 The author of 〃Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development〃 （〃Inquiries into Human Faculty〃； pages 1； 2； 3 sq。； London； 1883。）； has often expressed his surprise that； considering all the precautions taken； for example； in the breeding of horses； none whatever are taken in the breeding of the human species。 It seems to be forgotten that the species suffers when the 〃fittest〃 are not able to perpetuate their type。 Ritchie； in his 〃Darwinism and Politics〃 （〃Darwinism and Politics〃 pages 9； 22； London； 1889。） reminds us of Darwin's remark that the institution of the peerage might be defended on the ground that peers； owing to the prestige they enjoy； are enabled to select as wives 〃the most beautiful and charming women out of the lower ranks。〃 （〃Life and Letters of Charles Darwin〃； II。 page 385。） But； says Galton； it is as often as not 〃heiresses〃 that they pick out； and birth statistics seem to show that these are either less robust or less fecund than others。 The truth is that considerations continue to preside over marriage which are entirely foreign to the improvement of type； much as this is a condition of general progress。 Hence the importance of completing Odin's and De Candolle's statistics which are designed to show how characters are incorporated in organisms； how they are transmitted； how lost； and according to what law eugenic elements depart from the mean or return to it。
But thinkers do not always content themselves with undertaking merely the minute researches which the idea of Selection suggests。 They are eager to defend this or that thesis。 In the name of this idea certain social anthropologists have recast the conception of the process of civilisation； and have affirmed that Social Selection generally works against the trend of Natural Selection。 Vacher de Lapougefollowing up an observation by Broca on the pointenumerates the various institutions； or customs； such as the celibacy of priests and military conscription； which cause elimination or sterilisation of the bearers of certain superior qualities； intellectual or physical。 In a more general way he attacks the democratic movement； a movement； as P。 Bourget says； which is 〃anti…physical〃 and contrary to the natural laws of progress； though it has been inspired 〃by the dreams of that most visionary of all centuries； the eighteenth。〃 （V。 de Lapouge； 〃Les Selections sociales〃； page 259； Paris； 1896。） The 〃Equality〃 which levels down and mixes （justly condemned； he holds； by the Comte de Gobineau）； prevents the aristocracy of the blond dolichocephales from holding the position and playing the part which； in the interests of all； should belong to them。 Otto Ammon； in his 〃Natural Selection in Man〃； and in 〃The Social Order and its Natural Bases〃 （〃Die naturliche Auslese beim Menschen〃； Jena； 1893； 〃Die Gesellschaftsordnung und ihre naturlichen Grundlagen〃。 〃Entwurf einer Sozialanthropologie〃； Jena； 1896。）； defended analogous doctrines in Germany； setting the curve representing frequency of talent over against that of income； he attempted to show that all democratic measures which aim at promoting the rise in the social scale of the talented are useless； if not dangerous； that they only increase the panmixia； to the great detriment of the species and of society。
Among the aristocratic theories which Darwinism has thus inspired we must reckon that of Nietzsche。 It is well known that in order to complete his philosophy he added biological studies to his philological； and more than once in his remarks upon the 〃Wille zur Macht〃 he definitely alludes to Darwin； though it must be confessed that it is generally in order to proclaim the in sufficiency of the processes by which Darwin seeks to explain the genesis of species。 Nevertheless； Nietzsche's mind is completely possessed by an ideal of Selection。 He； too； has a horror of panmixia。 The naturalists' conception of 〃the fittest〃 is joined by him to that of the 〃hero〃 of romance to furnish a basis for his doctrine of the Superman。 Let us hasten to add； moreover； that at the very moment when support was being sought in the theory of Selection for the various forms of the aristocratic doctrine； those same forms were being battered down on another side by means of that very theory。 Attention was drawn to the fact that by virtue of the laws which Darwin himself had discovered isolation leads to etiolation。 There is a risk that the privilege which withdraws the privileged elements of Society from competition will cause them to degenerate。 In fact； Jacoby in his 〃Studies in Selection； in connexion with Heredity in Man〃； （〃Etudes sur la Selection dans ses rapports avec l'heredite chez l'homme〃； Paris； page 481； 1881。）； concludes that 〃sterility； mental debility； premature death and； finally； the extinction of the stock were not specially and exclusively the fate of sovereign dynasties； all privileged classes； all families in exclusively elevated positions share the fate of reigning families； although in a minor degree and in direct proportion to the loftiness of their social standing。 From the mass of human beings spring individuals； families； races； which tend to raise themselves above the common level； painfully they climb the rugged heights； attain the summits of power； of wealth； of intelligence； of talent； and then； no sooner are they there than they topple down and disappear in gulfs of mental and physical degeneracy。〃 The demographical researches of Hansen （〃Die drei Bevolkerungsstufen〃； Munich； 1889。） （following up and completing Dumont's） tended； indeed； to show that urban as well as feudal aristocracies； burgher classes as well as noble castes； were liable to become effete。 Hence it might well be concluded that the democratic movement； operating as it does to break down class barriers； was promoting instead of impeding human selection。
So we see that； according to the point of view； very different conclusions have been drawn from the application of the Darwinian idea of Selection to human society。 Darwin's other central idea； closely bound up with this； that； namely； of the 〃struggle for existence〃 also has been diversely utilised。 But discussion has chiefly centered upon its signification。 And while some endeavour to extend its application to everything； we find others trying to limit its range。 The conception of a 〃struggle for existence〃 has in the present day been taken up into the social sciences from natural science； and adopted。 But originally it descended from social science to natural。 Darwin's law is； as he himself said； only Malthus' law generalised and extended to the animal world： a growing disproportion between the supply of food and the number of the living is the fatal order whence arises the necessity of universal struggle； a struggle which； to the great advantage of the species； allows only the best equipped individuals to survive。 Nature is regarded by Huxley as an immense arena where all living beings are gladiators。 （〃Evolution and Ethics〃； page 200； 〃Collected Essays〃； Vol。 IX； London； 1894。）
Such a generalisation was well adapted to feed the stream of pessimistic thought； and it furnished to the apologists of war； in particular； new arguments； weighted with all the authority which in these days attaches to scientific deliverances。 If people no longer say； as Bonald did； and Moltke after him； that war is a providential fact； they yet lay stress on the point that it is a natural fact。 To the peace party Dragomirov's objection is urged that its attempts are contrary to the fundamental laws of nature； and that no sea wall can hold against breakers that come with such gathered force。
But in yet another quarter Darwinism was represented as opposed to philanthropic intervention。 The defenders of the orthodox political economy found in it support for their tenets。 Since in the organic world universal struggle is the condition of progress； it seemed obvious that free competition must be allowed to reign unchecked in the economic world。 Attempts to curb it were in the highest degree imprudent。 The spirit of Liberalism here seemed in conformity with the trend of nature： in this respect； at least； contemporary naturalism； offspring of the discoveries of the nineteenth century； brought reinforcements to the individualist doctrine； begotten of the speculations of the eighteenth： but only； it appeared； to turn mankind away for ever from humanitarian dreams。 Would those whom such conclusions repelled be content to oppose to nature's imperatives only the protests of the heart？ There were some who declared； like Brunetiere； that the laws in question； valid though they might be for the animal kingdom； were not applicable to the human。 And so a re