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oughout the progress of civilisation； because natural selection has long since ceased to be the dominant factor in human progress。 The history of human progress has been mainly the history of man's higher educability； the products of which he has projected on to his environment。 This educability remains on the average what it was a dozen generations ago； but the thought…woven tapestry of his surroundings is refashioned and improved by each succeeding generation。 Few men have in greater measure enriched the thought…environment with which it is the aim of education to bring educable human beings into vital contact； than has Charles Darwin。 His special field of work was the wide province of biology； but he did much to help us realise that mental factors have contributed to organic evolution and that in man； the highest product of Evolution； they have reached a position of unquestioned supremacy。
XXII。 THE INFLUENCE OF THE CONCEPTION OF EVOLUTION ON MODERN PHILOSOPHY。
By H。 HOFFDING。 Professor of Philosophy in the University of Copenhagen。
I。
It is difficult to draw a sharp line between philosophy and natural science。 The naturalist who introduces a new principle； or demonstrates a fact which throws a new light on existence； not only renders an important service to philosophy but is himself a philosopher in the broader sense of the word。 The aim of philosophy in the stricter sense is to attain points of view from which the fundamental phenomena and the principles of the special sciences can be seen in their relative importance and connection。 But philosophy in this stricter sense has always been influenced by philosophy in the broader sense。 Greek philosophy came under the influence of logic and mathematics； modern philosophy under the influence of natural science。 The name of Charles Darwin stands with those of Galileo； Newton； and Robert Mayernames which denote new problems and great alterations in our conception of the universe。
First of all we must lay stress on Darwin's own personality。 His deep love of truth； his indefatigable inquiry； his wide horizon； and his steady self… criticism make him a scientific model； even if his results and theories should eventually come to possess mainly an historical interest。 In the intellectual domain the primary object is to reach high summits from which wide surveys are possible； to reach them toiling honestly upwards by way of experience； and then not to turn dizzy when a summit is gained。 Darwinians have sometimes turned dizzy； but Darwin never。 He saw from the first the great importance of his hypothesis； not only because of its solution of the old problem as to the value of the concept of species； not only because of the grand picture of natural evolution which it unrolls； but also because of the life and inspiration its method would impart to the study of comparative anatomy； of instinct and of heredity； and finally because of the influence it would exert on the whole conception of existence。 He wrote in his note…book in the year 1837： 〃My theory would give zest to recent and fossil comparative anatomy； it would lead to the study of instinct； heredity； and mind…heredity； whole （of） metaphysics。〃 （〃Life and Letters of Charles Darwin〃； Vol。 I。 page 8。）
We can distinguish four main points in which Darwin's investigations possess philosophical importance。
The evolution hypothesis is much older than Darwin； it is； indeed； one of the oldest guessings of human thought。 In the eighteenth century it was put forward by Diderot and Lamettrie and suggested by Kant （1786）。 As we shall see later； it was held also by several philosophers in the first half of the nineteenth century。 In his preface to 〃The Origin of Species〃； Darwin mentions the naturalists who were his forerunners。 But he has set forth the hypothesis of evolution in so energetic and thorough a manner that it perforce attracts the attention of all thoughtful men in a much higher degree than it did before the publication of the 〃Origin〃。
And further； the importance of his teaching rests on the fact that he； much more than his predecessors； even than Lamarck； sought a foundation for his hypothesis in definite facts。 Modern science began by demandingwith Kepler and Newtonevidence of verae causae； this demand Darwin industriously set himself to satisfyhence the wealth of material which he collected by his observations and his experiments。 He not only revived an old hypothesis； but he saw the necessity of verifying it by facts。 Whether the special cause on which he founded the explanation of the origin of speciesNatural Selectionis sufficient； is now a subject of discussion。 He himself had some doubt in regard to this question； and the criticisms which are directed against his hypothesis hit Darwinism rather than Darwin。 In his indefatigable search for empirical evidence he is a model even for his antagonists： he has compelled them to approach the problems of life along other lines than those which were formerly followed。
Whether the special cause to which Darwin appealed is sufficient or not； at least to it is probably due the greater part of the influence which he has exerted on the general trend of thought。 〃Struggle for existence〃 and 〃natural selection〃 are principles which have been applied； more or less； in every department of thought。 Recent research； it is true； has discovered greater empirical discontinuityleaps； 〃mutations〃whereas Darwin believed in the importance of small variations slowly accumulated。 It has also been shown by the experimental method； which in recent biological work has succeeded Darwin's more historical method； that types once constituted possess great permanence； the fluctuations being restricted within clearly defined boundaries。 The problem has become more precise； both as to variation and as to heredity。 The inner conditions of life have in both respects shown a greater independence than Darwin had supposed in his theory； though he always admitted that the cause of variation was to him a great enigma； 〃a most perplexing problem；〃 and that the struggle for life could only occur where variation existed。 But； at any rate； it was of the greatest importance that Darwin gave a living impression of the struggle for life which is everywhere going on； and to which even the highest forms of existence must be amenable。 The philosophical importance of these ideas does not stand or fall with the answer to the question； whether natural selection is a sufficient explanation of the origin of species or not： it has an independent； positive value for everyone who will observe life and reality with an unbiassed mind。
In accentuating the struggle for life Darwin stands as a characteristically English thinker： he continues a train of ideas which Hobbes and Malthus had already begun。 Moreover in his critical views as to the conception of species he had English forerunners； in the middle ages Occam and Duns Scotus； in the eighteenth century Berkeley and Hume。 In his moral philosophy； as we shall see later； he is an adherent of the school which is represented by Hutcheson； Hume and Adam Smith。 Because he is no philosopher in the stricter sense of the term； it is of great interest to see that his attitude of mind is that of the great thinkers of his nation。
In considering Darwin's influence on philosophy we will begin with an examination of the attitude of philosophy to the conception of evolution at the time when 〃The Origin of Species〃 appeared。 We will then examine the effects which the theory of evolution； and especially the idea of the struggle for life； has had； and naturally must have； on the discussion of philosophical problems。
II。
When 〃The Origin of Species〃 appeared fifty years ago Romantic speculation； Schelling's and Hegel's philosophy； still reigned on the continent； while in England Positivism； the philosophy of Comte and Stuart Mill； represented the most important trend of thought。 German speculation had much to say on evolution； it even pretended to be a philosophy of evolution。 But then the word 〃evolution〃 was to be taken in an ideal； not in a real； sense。 To speculative thought the forms and types of nature formed a system of ideas； within which any form could lead us by continuous transitions to any other。 It was a classificatory system which was regarded as a divine world of thought or images； within which metamorphoses could go ona condition comparable with that in the mind of the poet when one image follows another with imperceptible changes。 Goethe's ideas of evolution； as expressed in his 〃Metamorphosen der Pflanzen und der Thiere〃； belong to this category； it is； therefore； incorrect to call him a forerunner of Darwin。 Schelling and Hegel held the same idea； Hegel expressly rejected the conception of a real evolution in time as coarse and materialistic。 〃Nature；〃 he says； 〃is to be considered as a SYSTEM OF STAGES； the one necessarily arising from the other； and being the nearest truth of that from which it proceeds； but not in such a way that the one is NATURALLY generated by the other； on the contrary （their connection lies） in the inner idea which is the ground of nature。 The METAMORPHOSIS can be ascribed only to the notion