按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
psychological implications； is raised to a level otherwise perhaps unattainable by natural means； while in the female it affords opportunities for the development in the individual and evolution in the race of what we may follow Darwin in calling appreciation； if we empty this word of the aesthetic implications which have gathered round it in the mental life of man。
Regarded from this standpoint sexual selection； broadly considered； has probably been of great importance。 The psychological accompaniments of the pairing situation have profoundly influenced the course of biological evolution and are themselves the outcome of that evolution。
Darwin makes only passing reference to those modes of behaviour in animals which go by the name of play。 〃Nothing；〃 he says （〃Descent of Man〃； Vol。 II。 page 60； （Popular edition）； page 566。）； 〃is more common than for animals to take pleasure in practising whatever instinct they follow at other times for some real good。〃 This is one of the very numerous cases in which a hint of the master has served to stimulate research in his disciples。 It was left to Prof。 Groos to develop this subject on evolutionary lines and to elaborate in a masterly manner Darwin's suggestion。 〃The utility of play；〃 he says （〃The Play of Animals〃； page 76。）； 〃is incalculable。 This utility consists in the practice and exercise it affords for some of the more important duties of life；〃that is to say； for the performance of activities which will in adult life be essential to survival。 He urges （Ibid。 page 75。） that 〃the play of young animals has its origin in the fact that certain very important instincts appear at a time when the animal does not seriously need them。〃 It is； however； questionable whether any instincts appear at a time when they are not needed。 And it is questionable whether the instinctive and emotional attitude of the play…fight； to take one example； can be identified with those which accompany fighting in earnest； though no doubt they are closely related and have some common factors。 It is probable that play； as preparatory behaviour； differs in biological detail （as it almost certainly does in emotional attributes） from the earnest of after…life and that it has been evolved through differentiation and integration of the primary tissue of experience； as a preparation through which certain essential modes of skill may be acquiredthose animals in which the preparatory play…propensity was not inherited in due force and requisite amount being subsequently eliminated in the struggle for existence。 In any case there is little question that Prof。 Groos is right in basing the play…propensity on instinctive foundations。 （〃The Play of Animals〃 page 24。） None the less； as he contends； the essential biological value of play is that it is a means of training the educable nerve…tissue； of developing that part of the brain which is modified by experience and which thus acquires new characters； of elaborating the secondary tissue of experience on the predetermined lines of instinctive differentiation and thus furthering the psychological activities which are included under the comprehensive term 〃intelligent。〃
In 〃The Descent of Man〃 Darwin dealt at some length with intelligence and the higher mental faculties。 （〃Descent of Man〃 （1st edition）； Chapters II； III； V； （2nd edition）； Chapters III； IV； V。） His object； he says； is to show that there is no fundamental difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental faculties； that these faculties are variable and the variations tend to be inherited； and that under natural selection beneficial variations of all kinds will have been preserved and injurious ones eliminated。
Darwin was too good an observer and too honest a man to minimise the 〃enormous difference〃 between the level of mental attainment of civilised man and that reached by any animal。 His contention was that the difference； great as it is； is one of degree and not of kind。 He realised that； in the development of the mental faculties of man； new factors in evolution have supervenedfactors which play but a subordinate and subsidiary part in animal intelligence。 Intercommunication by means of language； approbation and blame； and all that arises out of reflective thought； are but foreshadowed in the mental life of animals。 Still he contends that these may be explained on the doctrine of evolution。 He urges （Ibid。 Vol。 I。 pages 70； 71； （Popular edition）； pages 70； 71。）〃 that man is variable in body and mind； and that the variations are induced； either directly or indirectly； by the same general causes； and obey the same general laws； as with the lower animals。〃 He correlates mental development with the evolution of the brain。 （Ibid。 page 81。） 〃As the various mental faculties gradually developed themselves； the brain would almost certainly become larger。 No one； I presume； doubts that the large proportion which the size of man's brain bears to his body； compared to the same proportion in the gorilla or orang； is closely connected with his higher mental powers。〃 〃With respect to the lower animals；〃 he says （〃Descent of Man〃 （Popular edition）； page 82。）； 〃M。E。 Lartet （〃Comptes Rendus des Sciences〃； June 1； 1868。）； by comparing the crania of tertiary and recent mammals belonging to the same groups； has come to the remarkable conclusion that the brain is generally larger and the convolutions are more complex in the more recent form。〃
Sir E。 Ray Lankester has sought to express in the simplest terms the implications of the increase in size of the cerebrum。 〃In what；〃 he asks； 〃does the advantage of a larger cerebral mass consist？〃 〃Man；〃 he replies 〃is born with fewer ready…made tricks of the nerve…centresthese performances of an inherited nervous mechanism so often called by the ill… defined term 'instincts'than are the monkeys or any other animal。 Correlated with the absence of inherited ready…made mechanism； man has a greater capacity of developing in the course of his individual growth similar nervous mechanisms （similar to but not identical with those of 'instinct'） than any other animal。。。The power of being educated 'educability' as we may term itis what man possesses in excess as compared with the apes。 I think we are justified in forming the hypothesis that it is this 'educability' which is the correlative of the increased size of the cerebrum。〃 There has been natural selection of the more educable animals； for 〃the character which we describe as 'educability' can be transmitted； it is a congenital character。 But the RESULTS of education can NOT be transmitted。 In each generation they have to be acquired afresh； and with increased 'educability' they are more readily acquired and a larger variety of them。。。The fact is that there is no community between the mechanisms of instinct and the mechanisms of intelligence； and that the latter are later in the history of the evolution of the brain than the former and can only develop in proportion as the former become feeble and defective。〃 （〃Nature〃； Vol。 LXI。 pages 624； 625 （1900）。）
In this statement we have a good example of the further development of views which Darwin foreshadowed but did not thoroughly work out。 It states the biological case clearly and tersely。 Plasticity of behaviour in special accommodation to special circumstances is of survival value； it depends upon acquired characters； it is correlated with increase in size and complexity of the cerebrum； under natural selection therefore the larger and more complex cerebrum as the organ of plastic behaviour has been the outcome of natural selection。 We have thus the biological foundations for a further development of genetic psychology。
There are diversities of opinion； as Darwin showed； with regard to the range of instinct in man and the higher animals as contrasted with lower types。 Darwin himself said （〃Descent of Man〃； Vol。 I。 page 100。） that 〃Man； perhaps； has somewhat fewer instincts than those possessed by the animals which come next to him in the series。〃 On the other hand； Prof。 Wm。 James says （〃Principles of Psychology；〃 Vol。 II。 page 289。） that man is probably the animal with most instincts。 The true position is that man and the higher animals have fewer complete and self…sufficing instincts than those which stand lower in the scale of mental evolution； but that they have an equally large or perhaps larger mass of instinctive raw material which may furnish the stuff to be elaborated by intelligent processes。 There is； perhaps； a greater abundance of the primary tissue of experience to be refashioned and integrated by secondary modification； there is probably the same differentiation in relation to the determining biological ends； but there is at the outset less differentiation of the particular and specific modes of behaviour。 The specialised instinctive performances and their concomitant experience…complexes are at the outset more indefinite。 Only through acquired connections； correlated with experience； do they become definitely organised。
The full working…out of the delicate and subtle relationship of instinct and educabilitythat is； of the hereditary and the acquired factors in the mental lifeis the task which lies before genetic and c