representative government-第3章

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good　institutions；　but　to　kindle　a　desire　for　them　is　a　necessary　part　of　the　preparation。　To　recommend　and　advocate　a　particular　institution　or　form　of　government；　and　set　its　advantages　in　the　strongest　light；　is　one　of　the　modes；　often　the　only　mode　within　reach；　of　educating　the　mind　of　the　nation　not　only　for　accepting　or　claiming；　but　also　for　working；　the　institution。　What　means　had　Italian　patriots；　during　the　last　and　present　generation；　of　preparing　the　Italian　people　for　freedom　in　unity；　but　by　inciting　them　to　demand　it？　Those；　however；　who　undertake　such　a　task；　need　to　be　duly　impressed；　not　solely　with　the　benefits　of　the　institution　or　polity　which　they　recommend；　but　also　with　the　capacities；　moral；　intellectual；　and　active；　required　for　working　it；　that　they　may　avoid；　if　possible；　stirring　up　a　desire　too　much　in　advance　of　the　capacity。　　　The　result　of　what　has　been　said　is；　that；　within　the　limits　set　by　the　three　conditions　so　often　adverted　to；　institutions　and　forms　of　government　are　a　matter　of　choice。　To　inquire　into　the　best　form　of　government　in　the　abstract　（as　it　is　called）　is　not　a　chimerical；　but　a　highly　practical　employment　of　scientific　intellect；　and　to　introduce　into　any　country　the　best　institutions　which；　in　the　existing　state　of　that　country；　are　capable　of；　in　any　tolerable　degree；　fulfilling　the　conditions；　is　one　of　the　most　rational　objects　to　which　practical　effort　can　address　itself。　Everything　which　can　be　said　by　way　of　disparaging　the　efficacy　of　human　will　and　purpose　in　matters　of　government　might　be　said　of　it　in　every　other　of　its　applications。　In　all　things　there　are　very　strict　limits　to　human　power。　It　can　only　act　by　wielding　some　one　or　more　of　the　forces　of　nature。　Forces；　therefore；　that　can　be　applied　to　the　desired　use　must　exist；　and　will　only　act　according　to　their　own　laws。　We　cannot　make　the　river　run　backwards；　but　we　do　not　therefore　say　that　watermills　〃are　not　made；　but　grow。〃　In　politics；　as　in　mechanics；　the　power　which　is　to　keep　the　engine　going　must　be　sought　for　outside　the　machinery；　and　if　it　is　not　forthcoming；　or　is　insufficient　to　surmount　the　obstacles　which　may　reasonably　be　expected；　the　contrivance　will　fail。　This　is　no　peculiarity　of　the　political　art；　and　amounts　only　to　saying　that　it　is　subject　to　the　same　limitations　and　conditions　as　all　other　arts。　　　At　this　point　we　are　met　by　another　objection；　or　the　same　objection　in　a　different　form。　The　forces；　it　is　contended；　on　which　the　greater　political　phenomena　depend；　are　not　amenable　to　the　direction　of　politicians　or　philosophers。　The　government　of　a　country；　it　is　affirmed；　is；　in　all　substantial　respects；　fixed　and　determined　beforehand　by　the　state　of　the　country　in　regard　to　the　distribution　of　the　elements　of　social　power。　Whatever　is　the　strongest　power　in　society　will　obtain　the　governing　authority；　and　a　change　in　the　political　constitution　cannot　be　durable　unless　preceded　or　accompanied　by　an　altered　distribution　of　power　in　society　itself。　A　nation；　therefore；　cannot　choose　its　form　of　government。　The　mere　details；　and　practical　organisation；　it　may　choose；　but　the　essence　of　the　whole；　the　seat　of　the　supreme　power；　is　determined　for　it　by　social　circumstances。　　　That　there　is　a　portion　of　truth　in　this　doctrine　I　at　once　admit；　but　to　make　it　of　any　use；　it　must　be　reduced　to　a　distinct　expression　and　proper　limits。　When　it　is　said　that　the　strongest　power　in　society　will　make　itself　strongest　in　the　government；　what　is　meant　by　power？　Not　thews　and　sinews；　otherwise　pure　democracy　would　be　the　only　form　of　polity　that　could　exist。　To　mere　muscular　strength；　add　two　other　elements；　property　and　intelligence；　and　we　are　nearer　the　truth；　but　far　from　having　yet　reached　it。　Not　only　is　a　greater　number　often　kept　down　by　a　less；　but　the　greater　number　may　have　a　preponderance　in　property；　and　individually　in　intelligence；　and　may　yet　be　held　in　subjection；　forcibly　or　otherwise；　by　a　minority　in　both　respects　inferior　to　it。　To　make　these　various　elements　of　power　politically　influential　they　must　be　organised；　and　the　advantage　in　organisation　is　necessarily　with　those　who　are　in　possession　of　the　government。　A　much　weaker　party　in　all　other　elements　of　power　may　greatly　preponderate　when　the　powers　of　government　are　thrown　into　the　scale；　and　may　long　retain　its　predominance　through　this　alone：　though；　no　doubt；　a　government　so　situated　is　in　the　condition　called　in　mechanics　unstable　equilibrium；　like　a　thing　balanced　on　its　smaller　end；　which；　if　once　disturbed；　tends　more　and　more　to　depart　from；　instead　of　reverting　to；　its　previous　state。　　　But　there　are　still　stronger　objections　to　this　theory　of　government　in　the　terms　in　which　it　is　usually　stated。　The　power　in　society　which　has　any　tendency　to　convert　itself　into　political　power　is　not　power　quiescent；　power　merely　passive；　but　active　power；　in　other　words；　power　actually　exerted；　that　is　to　say；　a　very　small　portion　of　all　the　power　in　existence。　Politically　speaking；　a　great　part　of　all　power　consists　in　will。　How　is　it　possible；　then；　to　compute　the　elements　of　political　power；　while　we　omit　from　the　computation　anything　which　acts　on　the　will？　To　think　that　because　those　who　wield　the　power　in　society　wield　in　the　end　that　of　government；　therefore　it　is　of　no　use　to　attempt　to　influence　the　constitution　of　the　government　by　acting　on　opinion；　is　to　forget　that　opinion　is　itself　one　of　the　greatest　active　social　forces。　One　person　with　a　belief　is　a　social　power　equal　to　ninety…nine　who　have　only　interests。　They　who　can　succeed　in　creating　a　general　persuasion　that　a　certain　form　of　government；　or　social　fact　of　any　kind；　deserves　to　be　preferred；　have　made　nearly　the　most　important　step　which　can　possibly　be　taken　towards　ranging　the　powers　of　society　on　its　side。　On　the　day　when　the　proto…martyr　was　stoned　to　death　at　Jerusalem；　while　he　who　was　to　be　the　Apostle　of　the　Gentiles　stood　by　〃consenting　unto　his　death；〃　would　any　one　have　supposed　that　the　party　of　that　stoned　man　were　then　and　there　the　strongest　power　in　society？　And　has　not　the　event　proved　that　they　were　so？　Because　theirs　was　the　most　powerful　of　then　existing　beliefs。　The　same　element　made　a　monk　of　Wittenberg；　at　the　meeting　of　the　Diet　of　Worms；　a　more　powerful　social　force　than　the　Emperor　Charles　the　Fifth；　and　all　the　princes　there　assembled。　But　these；　it　may　be　said；　are　cases　in　which　religion　was　concerned；　and　religious　convictions　are　something　peculiar　in　their　strength。　Then　let　us　take　a　case　purely　political；　where　religion；　so　far　as　concerned　at　all；　was　chiefly　on　the　losing　side。　If　any　one　requires　to　be　convinced　that　speculative　thought　is　one　of　the　chief　elements　of　social　power；　let　him　bethink　himself　of　the　age　in　which　there　was　scarcely　a　throne　in　Europe　which　was　not　filled　by　a　liberal　and　reforming　king；　a　liberal　and　reforming　emperor；　or；　strangest　of　all；　a　liberal　and　reforming　pope；　the　age　of　Frederic　the　Great；　of　Catherine　the　Second；　of　Joseph　the　Second；　of　Peter　Leopold；　of　Benedict　XIV。；　of　Ganganelli；　of　Pombal；　of　Aranda；　when　the　very　Bourbons　of　Naples　were　liberals　and　reformers；　and　all　the　active　minds　among　the　noblesse　of　France　were　filled　with　the　ideas　which　were　soon　after　to　cost　them　so　dear。　Surely　a　conclusive　example　how　far　mere　physical　and　economic　power　is　from　being　the　whole　of　social　power。　　　It　was　not　by　any　change　in　the　distribution　of　material　interests；　but　by　the　spread　of　moral　convictions；　that　negro　slavery　has　been　put　an　end　to　in　the　British　Empire　and　elsewhere。　The　serfs　in　Russia　owe　their　emancipation；　if　not　to　a　sentiment　of　duty；　at　least　to　the　growth　of　a　more　enlightened　opinion　respecting　the　true　interest　of　the　State。　It　is　what　men　think　that　determines　how　they　act；　and　though　the　persuasions　and　convictions　of　average　men　are　in　a　much　greater　degree　determined　by　their　personal　position　than　by　reason；　no　little　power　is　exercised　over　them　by　the　persuasions　and　convictions　of　those　whose　personal　position　is　different；　and　by　the　united　authority　of　the　instructed。　When；　therefore；　the　instructed　in　general　can　be　brought　to　recognise　one　social　arrangement；　or　political　or　other　institution；　as　good；　and　another　as　bad；　one　as　desirable；　another　as　condemnable；　very　much　has　been　done　towards　giving　to　the　one；　or　withdrawing　from　the　other；　that　preponderance　of　social　force　which　enables　it　to　subsist。　And　the　maxim；　that　the　government　of　a　country　is　what　the　social　forces　in　existence　compel　it　to　be；　is　true　only　in　the　sense　in　which　it　favours；　instead　of　discouraging；　the　attempt　to　exercise；　among　all　forms　of　government　practicable　in　the　existing　condition　of　society；　a　rational　choice。　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Chapter　2　　　　　　　　　　　　　　The　Criterion　of　a　Good　Form　of　Government。

　　THE　FORM　of　government　for　any　given　country　being　（within　certain　definite　conditions）　amenable　to　choice；　it　is　now　to　be　considered　by　what　test　the　choice　should　be　directed；　what　are　the　distinctive　characteristics　of　the　form　of　government　best　fitted　to　promote　the　interests　of　any　given　society。　　　Before　entering　into　this　inquiry；　it　may　seem　necessa